Seerah — Life of the Prophet ﷺ

A chronological journey through the life of Prophet Muhammad ﷺ, from birth to the establishment of the first Islamic community. Interactive maps, key events, and links to primary sources.

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570 CEMajor

Year of the Elephant

Abraha, the Abyssinian ruler of Yemen, marched an army with war elephants to destroy the Ka'bah and divert pilgrimage to his cathedral in Sana'a. As the army approached Mecca, Allah sent flocks of birds (Ababil) carrying stones of baked clay that decimated the invaders. The lead elephant, Mahmud, refused to advance toward the Ka'bah. This miraculous event, referenced in Surah al-Fil, occurred the same year Prophet Muhammad was born and reaffirmed the sanctity of the Ka'bah.

Location: Mecca

570 CE

Death of Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib

Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib, the father of Prophet Muhammad, died in Yathrib (Medina) while returning from a trading journey to Syria. He fell ill and stayed with relatives from Banu Najjar, passing away before his son was born. He was approximately 25 years old and was buried in Medina. The Prophet was thus born an orphan, as mentioned in Surah ad-Duha: 'Did He not find you an orphan and give you refuge?'

Location: Yathrib (Medina)

22 April 571 CEMajor

Birth of Prophet Muhammad ﷺ

Prophet Muhammad ﷺ was born in Mecca on a Monday, the 12th of Rabi al-Awwal in the Year of the Elephant. His father Abdullah had already passed away, and he was raised first by his mother Aminah, then by his grandfather Abdul Muttalib, and finally by his uncle Abu Talib. His birth was accompanied by extraordinary signs reported in the traditions, including a light that illuminated the palaces of Syria.

Location: Mecca

571 CE

Foster Care with Halimah al-Sa'diyyah

Following the Arab custom of sending infants to the desert for healthier upbringing and pure Arabic speech, the infant Muhammad was given to Halimah bint Abi Dhu'ayb of Banu Sa'd. She initially hesitated to take him because he was an orphan with no father to provide payment, but extraordinary blessings followed her household after accepting him. He remained with her for approximately four to five years in the desert near Ta'if.

Location: Desert of Banu Sa'd, near Ta'if

575 CE

Splitting of the Chest

While the young Muhammad was playing with other children among Banu Sa'd, two angels came to him, laid him down, opened his chest, removed his heart, extracted a black clot from it, washed the heart with Zamzam water in a golden basin, and restored it. This event purified his heart and prepared him for his future mission. Halimah, alarmed by the incident, returned him to his mother Aminah in Mecca.

Location: Desert of Banu Sa'd, near Ta'if

577 CE

Death of Aminah bint Wahb

Aminah bint Wahb, the mother of Prophet Muhammad, died at al-Abwa on the road between Mecca and Medina while returning from a visit to her husband Abdullah's grave and relatives in Medina. Muhammad was only six years old. The young orphan was then placed under the care of his grandfather Abd al-Muttalib, the chief of Quraysh and custodian of the Ka'bah.

Location: Al-Abwa, between Mecca and Medina

579 CE

Death of Abd al-Muttalib

Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim, the Prophet's grandfather, died in Mecca at the age of about 82. He had been the chief of Quraysh, guardian of Zamzam, and custodian of the Ka'bah. On his deathbed, he entrusted the eight-year-old Muhammad to his son Abu Talib, who would serve as the Prophet's guardian and protector for the next four decades. Abu Talib loved his nephew deeply and never abandoned him.

Location: Mecca

582 CE

First Journey to Syria with Abu Talib

At the age of twelve, Muhammad accompanied his uncle Abu Talib on a trading caravan to Syria. At Busra (Bosra), the Christian monk Bahira recognized signs of prophethood in the young boy and advised Abu Talib to protect him from the Jews and Romans. Bahira identified marks described in ancient scriptures and warned that the boy had a great future. Abu Talib cut the journey short and returned to Mecca.

Location: Busra (Bosra), Syria

590 CE

War of Fijar (Sacrilegious War)

A series of battles broke out between the Quraysh alliance (Kinana) and the Qays Aylan tribes during the sacred months, hence called 'sacrilegious.' The young Muhammad, about 20 years old, participated by collecting arrows for his uncles but did not engage in the fighting himself. The war lasted intermittently for about four years before a peace was negotiated. This experience exposed him to tribal conflict and its devastation.

Location: Ukaz, near Ta'if

590 CE

Hilf al-Fudul (Pact of the Virtuous)

After the War of Fijar, several Qurayshi clans formed a pact at the house of Abdullah ibn Jud'an to support the oppressed and ensure justice regardless of tribal affiliation. The young Muhammad participated and later said: 'I witnessed a pact in the house of Abdullah ibn Jud'an that was more beloved to me than a herd of red camels. If I were called to it in Islam, I would respond.' This pact became a model of pre-Islamic virtue that Islam affirmed.

Location: Mecca

595 CE

Trade Journey to Syria for Khadijah

Before their marriage, Khadijah hired Muhammad to lead her trade caravan to Syria based on his reputation for honesty (al-Amin). She sent her servant Maysarah to accompany him. Muhammad proved exceptionally capable, earning double the usual profit. Maysarah reported extraordinary events during the journey, including a monk who identified Muhammad as a future prophet and a cloud that shaded him from the sun. These reports, combined with his integrity, led Khadijah to propose marriage.

Location: Syria (from Mecca)

595 CEMajor

Marriage to Khadijah bint Khuwaylid

At the age of 25, Muhammad married Khadijah bint Khuwaylid, a wealthy and respected merchant of Quraysh who was about 40 years old. She had been impressed by his honesty, integrity, and the profits he earned leading her caravan. Their marriage lasted 25 years until her death. She bore him all his children except Ibrahim: al-Qasim, Zaynab, Ruqayyah, Umm Kulthum, Fatimah, and Abdullah.

Location: Mecca

605 CEMajor

Rebuilding of the Ka'bah and the Black Stone Dispute

When Muhammad was about 35, the Ka'bah was damaged by flooding and the Quraysh rebuilt it. A dispute arose over which clan would have the honor of placing the Black Stone (al-Hajar al-Aswad) back in its corner. They agreed that the next person to enter the Haram would arbitrate. Muhammad entered, placed the stone on a cloth, had representatives of each clan hold an edge, and set the stone himself. This wisdom averted potential bloodshed.

Location: Ka'bah, Mecca

610 CE

Spiritual Retreat in Cave Hira

In the years before prophethood, Muhammad regularly retreated to Cave Hira on Jabal al-Nur (Mountain of Light) for meditation and contemplation. He would spend days and nights in solitary worship, reflecting on creation and the falsehood of idol worship. Khadijah would send provisions to him. These retreats of tahannuth (devotion) prepared his heart for the momentous revelation that would soon come.

Location: Cave Hira, Jabal al-Nur, Mecca

610 CEMajor

First Revelation in Cave Hira

Angel Jibreel appeared to Prophet Muhammad ﷺ in Cave Hira on Mount Nur during the month of Ramadan. He embraced the Prophet three times and commanded him to read. The first verses revealed were the opening of Surah al-Alaq: 'Read in the name of your Lord who created. Created man from a clinging substance. Read, and your Lord is the Most Generous.' This marked the beginning of prophethood and the final divine message to humanity.

Location: Cave Hira, Jabal al-Nur, Mecca

610 CEMajor

Khadijah Becomes the First Believer

After the first revelation, the Prophet returned to Khadijah trembling and she comforted him with her famous words: 'By Allah, Allah will never disgrace you. You maintain ties of kinship, bear the burden of the weak, help the destitute, honor guests, and assist those afflicted by calamity.' She then took him to her cousin Waraqah ibn Nawfal, a Christian scholar, who confirmed this was the same angel sent to Musa. Khadijah was the first person to accept Islam.

Location: Mecca

610 CE

Revelation of Surah al-Muddaththir

After the first revelation, there was a pause (fatrah) during which the Prophet ﷺ became anxious. Then Jibreel appeared again as the Prophet was wrapped in his cloak, revealing: 'O you who covers himself, arise and warn. And your Lord glorify. And your clothing purify. And uncleanliness avoid' (74:1-5). This surah marked the transition from private devotion to active prophetic mission. The command 'arise and warn' defined his life's work of calling humanity to the worship of One God.

Location: Mecca

610 CEMajor

Revelation of Surah al-Fatiha

Surah al-Fatiha, 'The Opening,' was among the earliest complete surahs revealed. Known as Umm al-Quran (Mother of the Quran) and Umm al-Kitab (Mother of the Book), it is the most frequently recited passage in Islam, required in every unit of prayer. It encapsulates the essence of the Quran: praise of Allah, affirmation of His sovereignty, the Day of Judgment, the plea for guidance, and the straight path. The Prophet said: 'The prayer is not valid for one who does not recite al-Fatiha.'

Location: Mecca

610-613 CE

Period of Secret Dawah

For approximately three years, the Prophet ﷺ called people to Islam secretly. The first believers included Khadijah bint Khuwaylid, Abu Bakr al-Siddiq, Ali ibn Abi Talib (then about 10 years old), Zayd ibn Harithah (his freed slave and adopted son), and Uthman ibn Affan. Abu Bakr was instrumental in bringing many early converts including al-Zubayr ibn al-Awwam, Abdur-Rahman ibn Awf, Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas, and Talhah ibn Ubaydillah.

Location: Mecca

613 CE

Gatherings at Dar al-Arqam

The Prophet ﷺ used the house of al-Arqam ibn Abi al-Arqam near Mount Safa as a secret meeting place to teach Islam to new converts. This house became the first center of Islamic learning where the Prophet recited Quran, taught prayers, and strengthened the faith of early Muslims. Many notable companions accepted Islam here. The house could accommodate around 40 people and served this purpose until the public declaration of Islam.

Location: Dar al-Arqam, near Mount Safa, Mecca

613 CEMajor

Public Declaration of Islam

After three years of secret preaching, Allah commanded the Prophet ﷺ to proclaim Islam publicly with the revelation: 'And warn your closest kindred' (26:214). He ascended Mount Safa and called the clans of Quraysh by name, asking if they would believe him if he warned of an approaching army. They affirmed his truthfulness. He then declared his message of monotheism. Abu Lahab responded with hostility, prompting the revelation of Surah al-Masad.

Location: Mount Safa, Mecca

613-615 CEMajor

Persecution of Early Muslims

The Quraysh intensified their persecution of Muslims, especially those without tribal protection. Bilal ibn Rabah was tortured by Umayyah ibn Khalaf, who placed heavy rocks on his chest under the scorching sun, but Bilal repeated 'Ahad, Ahad' (One, One). Abu Bakr purchased and freed him. The family of Yasir suffered terribly: Sumayyah bint Khayyat became the first martyr of Islam when Abu Jahl killed her with a spear, and her husband Yasir also died from torture.

Location: Mecca

614 CE

Conversion of al-Tufayl ibn Amr al-Dawsi

Al-Tufayl ibn Amr, a prominent poet and chief of the Daws tribe of southern Arabia, came to Mecca. The Quraysh warned him against listening to Muhammad, and he stuffed cotton in his ears. Despite this, he heard the Prophet reciting Quran near the Ka'bah and was deeply moved. He accepted Islam and returned to his tribe. When they initially rejected his preaching, he asked the Prophet to curse them, but the Prophet instead prayed: 'O Allah, guide Daws.' Eventually the entire tribe accepted Islam.

Location: Mecca

615 CEMajor

Hamza ibn Abd al-Muttalib Accepts Islam

Hamza ibn Abd al-Muttalib, the Prophet's uncle and a renowned warrior of Quraysh, accepted Islam in the sixth year of prophethood. He was provoked to action when Abu Jahl insulted and struck the Prophet near Mount Safa. Hamza confronted Abu Jahl and struck him with his bow, declaring his acceptance of Islam. His conversion was initially driven by tribal honor but soon became sincere faith. His acceptance strengthened the Muslim community significantly.

Location: Mecca

615 CEMajor

First Migration to Abyssinia

Due to severe persecution, the Prophet ﷺ instructed a group of Muslims to migrate to Abyssinia (modern Ethiopia) under the protection of the just Christian king, Negus (an-Najashi). About 15 Muslims made this first migration, including Uthman ibn Affan and his wife Ruqayyah (the Prophet's daughter). The Prophet said: 'In Abyssinia there is a king under whom no one is oppressed.' This was the first hijrah in Islam.

Location: Abyssinia (Aksum, Ethiopia)

616 CEMajor

Umar ibn al-Khattab Accepts Islam

Umar ibn al-Khattab, initially one of the fiercest opponents of Islam, set out to kill the Prophet but was redirected to his sister Fatimah's house where she and her husband were reciting Surah Ta-Ha. After striking his sister and seeing her bleed, he felt remorse and asked to read the verses. Moved by their beauty, he went to the Prophet at Dar al-Arqam and declared his shahada. The Prophet exclaimed 'Allahu Akbar' and the Muslims openly prayed at the Ka'bah for the first time.

Location: Mecca

616 CEMajor

Second Migration to Abyssinia

A larger group of about 83 men and 18 women migrated to Abyssinia in the second wave, led by Ja'far ibn Abi Talib. When the Quraysh sent Amr ibn al-As to demand the Negus return the refugees, Ja'far delivered his famous speech about the condition of Arabs before Islam and recited Surah Maryam. The Negus wept upon hearing about Isa and Maryam and refused to hand over the Muslims, granting them permanent asylum.

Location: Abyssinia (Aksum, Ethiopia)

616-619 CEMajor

Boycott of Banu Hashim

The Quraysh imposed a total social and economic boycott on Banu Hashim and Banu al-Muttalib, drafting a document that forbade marriage, trade, and social interaction with them. The Muslims were confined to the valley of Abu Talib (Shi'b Abi Talib) for three years, suffering severe hunger. Children could be heard crying from starvation. The boycott ended when termites ate the unjust document, leaving only 'In Your Name, O Allah.'

Location: Shi'b Abi Talib, Mecca

619 CEMajor

Death of Abu Talib

Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib, the Prophet's uncle and protector for over 40 years, fell gravely ill. The Prophet visited him and pleaded: 'O uncle, say La ilaha ill-Allah, a statement with which I can defend you before Allah.' Abu Jahl and Abdullah ibn Abi Umayyah pressured Abu Talib not to abandon the religion of his father. He died saying he was on the religion of Abd al-Muttalib. The Prophet said: 'I will keep asking forgiveness for you unless I am forbidden.' Then Quran 9:113 was revealed prohibiting that.

Location: Mecca

619 CEMajor

Death of Khadijah bint Khuwaylid

Khadijah bint Khuwaylid, the Prophet's first wife and the first person to accept Islam, died in Mecca at approximately 65 years of age. She had supported the Prophet spiritually, emotionally, and financially for 25 years of marriage and 10 years of prophethood. Jibreel sent her salam from Allah and gave her glad tidings of a palace in Paradise of hollowed pearls where there would be no noise or fatigue. The Prophet never forgot her and Aisha later said she was never jealous of any wife as much as Khadijah.

Location: Mecca

619 CEMajor

Year of Sorrow

The Prophet ﷺ lost both his beloved wife Khadijah and his uncle and protector Abu Talib within weeks of each other. Khadijah had been his greatest supporter for 25 years, the first believer, and his confidante. Abu Talib, though he did not accept Islam, had shielded the Prophet from Quraysh's worst violence. Their deaths left the Prophet without his closest emotional support and his tribal protection, making this the most devastating period of his life.

Location: Mecca

619 CEMajor

Journey to Ta'if

After losing his protectors, the Prophet ﷺ traveled to Ta'if with Zayd ibn Harithah seeking support from the Thaqif tribe. The leaders rejected him and incited street urchins and slaves to stone him, causing his blessed feet to bleed. He took shelter in a garden and made his famous supplication: 'O Allah, to You alone I complain of my weakness.' Allah sent Jibreel with the angel of the mountains offering to crush the people between the two mountains, but the Prophet refused, hoping their descendants might accept Islam.

Location: Ta'if

621 CEMajor

The Night Journey and Ascension (Isra and Mi'raj)

Prophet Muhammad ﷺ was taken on a miraculous night journey from Masjid al-Haram in Mecca to Masjid al-Aqsa in Jerusalem (al-Isra) on al-Buraq. There he led all the prophets in prayer. He then ascended through the seven heavens (al-Mi'raj), meeting prophets at each level: Adam, Yahya and Isa, Yusuf, Idris, Harun, Musa, and Ibrahim. He was brought into the divine presence and the five daily prayers were prescribed. This journey affirmed his status as the final messenger.

Location: Jerusalem (from Mecca)

621 CEMajor

First Pledge of Aqabah

During the Hajj season, twelve men from Yathrib (Medina) met the Prophet ﷺ at Aqabah near Mina and pledged allegiance, known as Bay'at al-Aqabah al-Ula. They pledged not to associate partners with Allah, not to steal, not to commit unlawful sexual intercourse, not to kill their children, and to obey the Prophet in good. This pledge, also called Bay'at al-Nisa (Pledge of Women) as it contained no military clauses, opened the door for Islam to spread in Medina.

Location: Aqabah, near Mina, Mecca

621 CE

Mus'ab ibn Umayr Sent to Medina as Teacher

After the First Pledge of Aqabah, the Prophet ﷺ sent Mus'ab ibn Umayr to Medina as the first ambassador and teacher of Islam. Mus'ab stayed with As'ad ibn Zurarah and was remarkably successful in spreading Islam throughout Medina. Through his gentle approach and beautiful Quran recitation, he converted many prominent figures including Usayd ibn Hudayr and Sa'd ibn Mu'adh, chiefs of the Aws tribe. By the next Hajj season, Islam had spread widely in Medina.

Location: Yathrib (Medina)

622 CEMajor

Second Pledge of Aqabah

During the next Hajj, 73 men and 2 women from Medina met the Prophet ﷺ secretly at Aqabah at night. They pledged to protect him as they would protect their own families, to fight for Islam, and to give him sanctuary in Medina. The Prophet appointed twelve representatives (naqibs) from among them. This military pledge, known as Bay'at al-Harb, paved the way for the Hijrah. Al-Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib attended as a witness though he had not yet accepted Islam.

Location: Aqabah, near Mina, Mecca

622 CEMajor

Quraysh Plot to Assassinate the Prophet

As Muslims began migrating to Medina, the Quraysh convened at Dar al-Nadwah to decide the Prophet's fate. Abu Jahl proposed that one young man from each clan simultaneously strike the Prophet, distributing the blood-guilt so no single clan could be held responsible. Allah revealed their plot to the Prophet: 'And when those who disbelieved plotted against you to restrain you or kill you or evict you' (8:30). The Prophet asked Ali to sleep in his bed as a decoy.

Location: Dar al-Nadwah, Mecca

622 CEMajor

The Hijrah: Migration to Medina

The Prophet ﷺ and Abu Bakr departed Mecca at night while Ali slept in the Prophet's bed as a decoy. They hid in Cave Thawr south of Mecca for three days while Quraysh searched for them. Abu Bakr's daughter Asma brought food, and his son Abdullah brought intelligence. Their guide Abdullah ibn Urayqit led them along an unfamiliar coastal route. When Abu Bakr feared the pursuers, the Prophet said: 'Do not grieve, indeed Allah is with us.' This migration marks the start of the Islamic calendar.

Location: Cave Thawr, then to Medina

622 CEMajor

Arrival at Quba and Building of Quba Mosque

After the eight-day journey from Mecca, the Prophet ﷺ arrived at Quba on the outskirts of Medina. He stayed with Kulthum ibn al-Hidm for about four days and established Masjid Quba, the first mosque built in Islam. The Quran refers to it as 'a mosque founded on righteousness from the first day' (9:108). The Prophet later said that praying two rak'ahs in Masjid Quba equals the reward of an Umrah.

Location: Quba, Medina

622 CE

First Friday (Jumu'ah) Prayer

On his way from Quba to Medina, the Prophet ﷺ stopped at the settlement of Banu Salim ibn Awf in the valley of Ranuna and led the first Jumu'ah (Friday) prayer. About one hundred Muslims participated in this historic congregational prayer. The Prophet delivered a sermon establishing the Friday prayer as an obligation for the Muslim community. This valley later became known for hosting this momentous occasion.

Location: Valley of Ranuna, between Quba and Medina

622 CEMajor

Arrival in Medina

The Prophet ﷺ entered Medina to a jubilant reception. The Ansar (Helpers) came out singing 'Tala'al-Badru Alayna' (The full moon has risen upon us). Every clan invited him to stay with them, but the Prophet let his camel walk freely, saying he would settle where it knelt. The camel stopped at a plot belonging to two orphans of Banu Najjar. The Prophet purchased the land and began building Masjid al-Nabawi (the Prophet's Mosque), marking the foundation of the first Islamic community.

Location: Medina

622 CEMajor

Building of Masjid al-Nabawi

The Prophet ﷺ personally participated in building the mosque, carrying bricks alongside his companions. The mosque was simple: walls of mud-brick, columns of palm trunks, and a roof of palm leaves. It served as a place of worship, a school, a court, a community center, and the seat of government. Adjoining rooms were built for the Prophet's family. The Suffah (covered platform) sheltered poor Muslims who dedicated themselves to learning.

Location: Masjid al-Nabawi, Medina

622 CEMajor

Brotherhood Between Muhajirun and Ansar

The Prophet ﷺ established a formal brotherhood (mu'akhah) between the Meccan emigrants (Muhajirun) and the Medinan helpers (Ansar), pairing each Muhajir with an Ansar. The Ansar shared their homes, wealth, and even offered to divorce a wife so their Muhajir brother could marry. Abdur-Rahman ibn Awf famously declined Sa'd ibn al-Rabi's generous offer, asking only to be shown the marketplace. This brotherhood was unprecedented in tribal Arab society and unified the Muslim community.

Location: Medina

622 CEMajor

Constitution of Medina

The Prophet ﷺ established the Constitution of Medina (Sahifat al-Madinah), a formal charter between the Muslim community, Jewish tribes (Banu Qaynuqa, Banu Nadir, Banu Qurayza), and pagan Arabs of Medina. It declared all signatories one political community (ummah), guaranteed religious freedom, established mutual defense obligations, prohibited alliances with Quraysh, and made the Prophet the final arbiter of disputes. This document is considered one of the earliest constitutional texts in history.

Location: Medina

622 CE

Institution of the Adhan (Call to Prayer)

The Muslims discussed how to call people to prayer, considering bells (Christian) and horns (Jewish) before Abdullah ibn Zayd reported a dream in which a man taught him the words of the adhan. Umar confirmed he had seen a similar vision. The Prophet ﷺ recognized the dream as true and instructed Bilal ibn Rabah, whose powerful voice was known throughout Medina, to make the call. Bilal thus became the first muezzin of Islam, his voice ringing out over Medina five times daily.

Location: Medina

February 624 CEMajor

Change of Qiblah from Jerusalem to Mecca

For about 16 or 17 months after the Hijrah, Muslims prayed facing Jerusalem (Bayt al-Maqdis). The Prophet ﷺ yearned to face the Ka'bah, and Allah revealed: 'We have certainly seen the turning of your face toward the heaven. So We will surely turn you to a qiblah with which you will be pleased. Turn your face toward al-Masjid al-Haram' (2:144). The change occurred mid-prayer at Masjid al-Qiblatayn, where the congregation turned from Jerusalem to Mecca. This became a test of faith and obedience.

Location: Masjid al-Qiblatayn, Medina

624 CEMajor

Fasting of Ramadan Prescribed

In the second year of Hijrah, Allah prescribed fasting the month of Ramadan as an obligation upon the Muslim community through the revelation of Surah al-Baqarah: 'O you who have believed, decreed upon you is fasting as it was decreed upon those before you that you may become righteous' (2:183). The verses also established the Night of Power (Laylat al-Qadr) and the rules of fasting from dawn to sunset. The Prophet fasted nine Ramadans in his lifetime.

Location: Medina

624 CEMajor

Zakat Prescribed as Obligation

Zakat, the obligatory annual charity, was prescribed as a pillar of Islam in the second year of Hijrah, though the concept of charity had been mentioned in Meccan revelations. The specific rates were established: 2.5% on savings and trade goods, varying rates on agricultural produce, livestock, and minerals. Zakat serves as a social welfare system, purifying wealth and addressing poverty. The Prophet appointed collectors and established the eight categories of recipients as detailed in Surah at-Tawbah (9:60).

Location: Medina

622-624 CEMajor

Revelation of Surah al-Baqarah

Surah al-Baqarah, the longest surah in the Quran (286 verses), was revealed over a period in Medina. It addresses a wide range of legislation: prayer, fasting, Hajj, marriage, divorce, commerce, inheritance, and warfare. It includes Ayat al-Kursi (2:255), the greatest verse, and concludes with a supplication that became beloved by Muslims. The Prophet said: 'Do not turn your houses into graves. Shaytan flees from the house in which Surah al-Baqarah is recited.'

Location: Medina

624 CE

Revelation of Ayat al-Kursi

Ayat al-Kursi (The Verse of the Throne, Quran 2:255) was revealed in Medina as part of Surah al-Baqarah. It is considered the greatest verse in the Quran. The Prophet ﷺ asked Ubayy ibn Ka'b: 'Which verse in the Book of Allah is the greatest?' and Ubayy replied with Ayat al-Kursi. The Prophet struck his chest approvingly and said: 'Rejoice in this knowledge, O Abu al-Mundhir.' This verse describes Allah's absolute sovereignty, knowledge, and power over all creation.

Location: Medina

February 624 CE

Death of Uthman ibn Maz'un

Uthman ibn Maz'un was among the earliest converts and one of the first emigrants to both Abyssinia and Medina. He was the first Muhajir to die in Medina and the first to be buried in the cemetery of al-Baqi'. The Prophet ﷺ kissed his forehead as he lay dead and wept. He placed a stone marker on his grave, saying: 'So that I may bury beside him those of my family who die.' His death established al-Baqi' as the cemetery of the Muslim community.

Location: Al-Baqi' Cemetery, Medina

13 March 624 CEMajor

Battle of Badr

The first major military encounter between 313 Muslims and approximately 1,000 Qurayshi fighters at the wells of Badr. Despite being outnumbered three to one, the Muslims achieved a decisive victory with divine assistance: 'Remember when you asked help of your Lord, and He answered you: I will reinforce you with a thousand angels' (8:9). Seventy Quraysh were killed, including Abu Jahl, and 70 were captured. Fourteen Muslims were martyred. This battle was the defining turning point for the nascent Muslim state.

Location: Badr

March 624 CE

Death of Ruqayyah, Daughter of the Prophet

Ruqayyah, the Prophet's daughter and wife of Uthman ibn Affan, died in Medina during the Battle of Badr. She had been gravely ill, and Uthman stayed behind to care for her on the Prophet's orders. News of the Muslim victory at Badr reached Medina on the same day as her burial. The Prophet later gave his other daughter Umm Kulthum in marriage to Uthman, earning him the title 'Dhun-Nurayn' (Possessor of Two Lights) for marrying two daughters of the Prophet.

Location: Medina

April 624 CE

Expulsion of Banu Qaynuqa

After the victory at Badr, Banu Qaynuqa, a Jewish tribe of goldsmiths and armorers in Medina, violated the Constitution of Medina by insulting a Muslim woman in their marketplace, leading to an altercation in which a Muslim and a Jew were killed. The Prophet besieged their fortress for fifteen days until they surrendered. Abdullah ibn Ubayy interceded for them. They were expelled from Medina with their portable property and relocated to Wadi al-Qura and later to Syria.

Location: Medina

624 CEMajor

Marriage of Fatimah to Ali ibn Abi Talib

The Prophet's daughter Fatimah al-Zahra married Ali ibn Abi Talib in a simple ceremony in the second year of Hijrah. Ali's mahr (dowry) was his iron armor, which he sold for 480 dirhams. Their household was modest, and Fatimah ground flour and carried water until her hands blistered. From this union came al-Hasan, al-Husayn, Zaynab, and Umm Kulthum, through whom the Prophet's lineage continues. The Prophet called Fatimah 'the leader of the women of Paradise.'

Location: Medina

March 625 CE

Birth of al-Hasan ibn Ali

Al-Hasan, the first grandson of the Prophet ﷺ, was born to Ali and Fatimah. The Prophet performed the aqiqah (sacrifice), shaved his head, and gave charity equal to the weight of his hair in silver. He named him al-Hasan, a name not known among the Arabs before Islam. The Prophet loved him dearly and said: 'Al-Hasan and al-Husayn are the leaders of the youth of Paradise.' He would carry al-Hasan on his shoulders even during prayers.

Location: Medina

19 March 625 CEMajor

Battle of Uhud

The Quraysh returned with 3,000 fighters led by Abu Sufyan to avenge Badr. The Prophet positioned 700 Muslims at the foot of Mount Uhud with 50 archers on Aynayn hill, ordering them not to leave. The Muslims initially prevailed, but most archers abandoned their post to collect spoils. Khalid ibn al-Walid's cavalry attacked from behind, causing chaos. The Prophet was wounded in his face and a rumor spread that he was killed. Seventy Muslims were martyred, including Hamza ibn Abd al-Muttalib, whose body was mutilated by Hind bint Utbah.

Location: Mount Uhud, Medina

19 March 625 CEMajor

Martyrdom of Hamza ibn Abd al-Muttalib at Uhud

Hamza ibn Abd al-Muttalib, the Prophet's uncle and the 'Lion of Allah,' was martyred at Uhud. Wahshi ibn Harb, an Abyssinian slave, killed him with a javelin throw, having been promised freedom by Hind bint Utbah if he killed Hamza to avenge her father at Badr. Hind mutilated Hamza's body, chewing his liver. When the Prophet saw his uncle's body, he wept deeply and said: 'Were it not that Safiyyah would grieve, I would have left him until Allah gathered him from the bellies of birds and beasts.'

Location: Mount Uhud, Medina

January 626 CE

Birth of al-Husayn ibn Ali

Al-Husayn, the second grandson of the Prophet ﷺ, was born to Ali and Fatimah. The Prophet performed the aqiqah and named him, as he had done with al-Hasan. The Prophet said of both grandsons: 'These two sons of mine are the leaders of the youth of the people of Paradise.' He once interrupted a sermon, descending from the pulpit to pick up al-Husayn who had stumbled while walking toward him, then returned to the pulpit with al-Husayn in his arms.

Location: Medina

August 625 CE

Expulsion of Banu Nadir

Banu Nadir, a Jewish tribe of date-palm farmers, conspired to assassinate the Prophet by dropping a boulder on him while he sat beside a wall. Allah informed the Prophet of the plot and he left immediately. He besieged their fortresses for six days. They eventually agreed to leave Medina, each family taking what their camels could carry. Most relocated to Khaybar, where they would later incite the Confederates against the Muslims. Surah al-Hashr was revealed concerning this event.

Location: Medina

625 CE

Prohibition of Alcohol (Khamr)

The prohibition of alcohol was revealed in stages. First, Allah mentioned that there was sin and benefit in wine but the sin was greater (2:219). Then Muslims were told not to approach prayer while intoxicated (4:43). Finally, the decisive prohibition came: 'O you who have believed, indeed intoxicants, gambling, stone altars, and divining arrows are but defilement from the work of Shaytan, so avoid it' (5:90). When this verse was announced, the companions immediately poured out all their wine in the streets of Medina.

Location: Medina

627 CE

Battle of Banu al-Mustaliq (al-Muraysi')

The Prophet ﷺ learned that Banu al-Mustaliq, a branch of Khuza'ah, were preparing to attack Medina under their chief al-Harith ibn Abi Dirar. The Muslims struck first at al-Muraysi', a watering place, routing the tribe quickly with minimal casualties. Many captives were taken and later freed. The Prophet married Juwayriyah bint al-Harith, the chief's daughter, which led the companions to free all captives out of respect for the Prophet's new family connection, and the entire tribe accepted Islam.

Location: Al-Muraysi', near the coast between Mecca and Medina

627 CEMajor

The Incident of al-Ifk (The Slander of Aisha)

After a military expedition, Aisha was accidentally left behind when the army moved camp at night. She was found and escorted back by Safwan ibn al-Mu'attal. The chief hypocrite Abdullah ibn Ubayy spread a vile accusation against Aisha's honor. For an entire month, the Prophet ﷺ and the community endured this trial. Then Allah revealed ten verses in Surah an-Nur (24:11-20) completely exonerating Aisha and establishing that false accusation of chaste women requires four witnesses, with flogging for those who cannot produce them.

Location: Medina

627 CE

Revelation of the Hijab Verse

The verse of hijab was revealed in the fifth year of Hijrah, commanding the wives of the Prophet to speak to men from behind a screen and later extended modesty guidelines to all believing women. The fuller commandment came in Surah al-Ahzab: 'O Prophet, tell your wives and your daughters and the women of the believers to bring down over themselves their outer garments' (33:59). Surah an-Nur also provided detailed guidance on lowering the gaze and covering adornments. These verses established Islamic norms of modesty.

Location: Medina

March 627 CEMajor

Battle of the Trench (Khandaq)

A grand coalition of 10,000 fighters, organized by Huyayy ibn Akhtab of Banu Nadir and led by Abu Sufyan, besieged Medina. On Salman al-Farsi's suggestion, the Muslims dug a trench across the northern approaches, a tactic unknown in Arabia. The siege lasted nearly a month. The Prophet endured severe hunger, tying stones to his stomach. Nu'aym ibn Mas'ud, a secret convert, sowed distrust between the coalition and Banu Qurayza. A fierce storm finally scattered the confederate camp, and they withdrew in disarray.

Location: Northern Medina

April 627 CEMajor

Siege of Banu Qurayza

Immediately after the Battle of the Trench, the Prophet marched against Banu Qurayza, who had broken their treaty by conspiring with the Confederates to attack the Muslims from within Medina during the siege. After a 25-day siege, they surrendered and asked for Sa'd ibn Mu'adh, their former ally, to judge their fate. Sa'd ruled according to the Torah's own law for treaty-breakers: the men were executed, and the women and children were taken as captives. Sa'd died shortly after from his battle wound.

Location: Medina

April 627 CE

Death of Sa'd ibn Mu'adh

Sa'd ibn Mu'adh, chief of the Aws tribe and one of the most prominent Ansar, died from a wound he received during the Battle of the Trench. He had prayed to Allah not to die until the matter of Banu Qurayza was settled, and passed away shortly after judging their case. The Prophet ﷺ said: 'The Throne of the Most Merciful shook at the death of Sa'd ibn Mu'adh.' Seventy thousand angels attended his funeral. Despite his large frame, his bier was remarkably light, which companions noted.

Location: Medina

627 CE

Marriage of the Prophet to Zaynab bint Jahsh

Zaynab bint Jahsh had been married to Zayd ibn Harithah, the Prophet's adopted son, at the Prophet's own arrangement. The marriage was unhappy and Zayd divorced her. Allah then commanded the Prophet to marry Zaynab to abolish the pre-Islamic prohibition against marrying the ex-wife of an adopted son: 'So when Zayd had no longer any need for her, We married her to you' (33:37). This marriage was directly performed by divine decree and abolished the legal fiction that adopted sons were biological sons.

Location: Medina

March 628 CEMajor

Treaty of Hudaybiyyah

The Prophet ﷺ led 1,400 Muslims to Mecca for Umrah in ihram, with no intention of war. At Hudaybiyyah, the Quraysh blocked their path. After negotiations, a ten-year peace treaty was signed. Its terms appeared unfavorable: Muslims would return without performing Umrah that year, any Qurayshi who fled to Medina must be returned, but not vice versa. Umar was deeply troubled, but the Quran declared it 'a manifest victory' (48:1). The peace allowed Islam to spread rapidly without military barriers.

Location: Hudaybiyyah, near Mecca

March 628 CEMajor

Bay'at al-Ridwan (Pledge Under the Tree)

During the Hudaybiyyah negotiations, a rumor spread that the Quraysh had killed the Muslim envoy Uthman ibn Affan. The Prophet sat beneath an acacia tree and called for a pledge to fight. All 1,400 companions pledged, and the Prophet placed his own hand over his other representing Uthman's pledge. Allah was pleased with them: 'Certainly Allah was pleased with the believers when they pledged allegiance to you under the tree' (48:18). The rumor proved false and negotiations resumed.

Location: Hudaybiyyah, near Mecca

May 628 CEMajor

Letters to the Rulers of the World

After Hudaybiyyah established peace, the Prophet ﷺ sent letters inviting world leaders to Islam. He had a silver seal ring made inscribed 'Muhammad Rasul Allah.' Letters went to Heraclius (Byzantine Emperor), Khosrow II (Sassanid Emperor), Muqawqis (ruler of Egypt), Negus of Abyssinia, rulers of Bahrain, Oman, and Yemen. Heraclius acknowledged the Prophet's claim but did not convert. Khosrow tore the letter, and the Prophet said: 'Allah will tear his kingdom.' Egypt's ruler sent gifts including Mariyah al-Qibtiyyah.

Location: Medina

May 628 CEMajor

Battle of Khaybar

The Prophet ﷺ marched with 1,600 Muslims against the Jewish fortress complex of Khaybar, whose inhabitants had been organizing military coalitions against the Muslims. The fortresses fell one by one over several weeks. Ali ibn Abi Talib distinguished himself by carrying the gate of the fortress after the Prophet said: 'Tomorrow I will give the banner to a man who loves Allah and His Messenger, and whom Allah and His Messenger love.' After the conquest, the Jews were allowed to remain and farm the land, paying half their harvest as tribute.

Location: Khaybar

628 CE

Return of the Abyssinian Emigrants

After the conquest of Khaybar, Ja'far ibn Abi Talib and the remaining Muslim emigrants in Abyssinia returned to Medina after nearly 15 years of exile. The Prophet ﷺ was overjoyed and said: 'I do not know which makes me happier, the conquest of Khaybar or the arrival of Ja'far.' He embraced Ja'far and kissed him between his eyes. The returnees brought with them deep experience of living as a minority and diplomatic relations with the Christian kingdom.

Location: Medina

March 629 CEMajor

Umrah al-Qadiyyah (Fulfilled Umrah)

As stipulated in the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, the Prophet ﷺ and 2,000 Muslims entered Mecca to perform the Umrah they had been prevented from the previous year. The Quraysh evacuated to the surrounding hills and watched as the Muslims performed tawaf and sa'i. The Prophet stayed three days. During this visit, Khalid ibn al-Walid and Amr ibn al-As, two of Quraysh's greatest military commanders, embraced Islam, dramatically shifting the balance of power.

Location: Mecca

June 629 CE

Khalid ibn al-Walid Accepts Islam

Khalid ibn al-Walid, the military genius who had turned the tide at Uhud against the Muslims, traveled to Medina with Amr ibn al-As and Uthman ibn Talhah to accept Islam. The Prophet ﷺ welcomed him warmly and said: 'I always knew your intelligence would lead you to Islam.' The Prophet later titled Khalid 'Sayfullah' (The Sword of Allah). His conversion deprived the Quraysh of their finest military strategist and gave the Muslims an unmatched commander.

Location: Medina

September 629 CEMajor

Battle of Mu'tah

The Prophet sent 3,000 fighters to confront the Ghassanids and their Byzantine allies who had killed his envoy al-Harith ibn Umayr. He appointed three commanders in sequence: Zayd ibn Harithah, Ja'far ibn Abi Talib, and Abdullah ibn Rawahah. All three were martyred in succession. Ja'far fought holding the banner until both his hands were severed, earning the title 'The Flying One' (Dhu al-Janahayn). Khalid ibn al-Walid took command and skillfully withdrew the army against a force of 200,000.

Location: Mu'tah, Jordan

630 CE

Quraysh Violate the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah

Banu Bakr, allies of the Quraysh, attacked Banu Khuza'ah, allies of the Muslims, killing several of them at the sacred precinct of al-Watir. Some Qurayshi men participated in the attack under cover of darkness. Banu Khuza'ah appealed to the Prophet for help. Abu Sufyan traveled to Medina to salvage the treaty but was rebuffed. The violation provided the justification for the conquest of Mecca. The Prophet began secret preparations for a massive military campaign.

Location: Between Mecca and Medina

11 January 630 CEMajor

Conquest of Mecca (Fath Makkah)

The Prophet ﷺ marched on Mecca with 10,000 Muslims, the largest Muslim army assembled to that point. Abu Sufyan accepted Islam on the eve of the conquest after seeing the vast Muslim camp. The city was taken with virtually no bloodshed, fulfilling the Prophet's strategy of overwhelming force to prevent resistance. He entered the Ka'bah, destroyed the 360 idols saying 'Truth has come and falsehood has vanished' (17:81), and declared a general amnesty. Even his bitterest enemies like Hind bint Utbah were forgiven.

Location: Mecca

January 630 CEMajor

Battle of Hunayn

Shortly after Mecca's conquest, the Hawazin and Thaqif tribes assembled 20,000 warriors at Hunayn valley. The 12,000-strong Muslim army, their largest yet, was ambushed in a narrow pass at dawn. Most fled in panic, but the Prophet stood firm on his mule calling: 'I am the Prophet, there is no lie! I am the son of Abd al-Muttalib!' A core of companions rallied around him, and the tide turned decisively. The Quran noted: 'On the day of Hunayn when your great number pleased you, but it did not avail you' (9:25).

Location: Hunayn Valley, near Ta'if

February 630 CE

Siege of Ta'if

After Hunayn, the remnants of the defeated Thaqif retreated to their fortified city of Ta'if. The Prophet ﷺ besieged the city for about 20 days, employing catapults for the first time. The siege was unsuccessful as the fortifications were strong. The Prophet withdrew, and companions asked him to curse the people of Ta'if. He instead prayed: 'O Allah, guide Thaqif and bring them to Islam.' Within a year, the Thaqif delegation came to Medina and accepted Islam voluntarily.

Location: Ta'if

March 630 CE

Distribution of Hunayn Spoils at Ji'ranah

The Prophet distributed the massive war spoils from Hunayn at Ji'ranah. He gave generously to the newly converted Quraysh chiefs (mu'allafat al-qulub, those whose hearts were being reconciled) to strengthen their Islam. The Ansar were troubled that they received less. The Prophet addressed them: 'Are you not satisfied that people go home with sheep and camels while you go home with the Messenger of Allah?' The Ansar wept and replied: 'We are satisfied with the Messenger of Allah as our share.'

Location: Ji'ranah, near Mecca

October 630 CEMajor

Expedition to Tabuk

The Prophet ﷺ led 30,000 Muslims on the longest and most difficult expedition, marching to Tabuk near the Byzantine frontier in the scorching heat of summer. Reports indicated a massive Byzantine force was assembling to invade Arabia. The hypocrites made excuses to stay behind, and three sincere companions (Ka'b ibn Malik, Murarah ibn al-Rabi, Hilal ibn Umayyah) were boycotted for 50 days for their failure to join without excuse. No battle occurred as the Byzantine forces withdrew, but the expedition demonstrated Muslim military reach.

Location: Tabuk, northern Arabia

December 630 CE

Repentance of the Three Who Stayed Behind

Ka'b ibn Malik, Murarah ibn al-Rabi, and Hilal ibn Umayyah, who had stayed behind from Tabuk without excuse, were boycotted by the entire community for 50 days. No one spoke to them, and Ka'b's wife was sent away. On the 50th day, Allah revealed their forgiveness: 'And He also turned in mercy to the three who were left behind until the earth, despite its vastness, closed in on them' (9:118). Ka'b described hearing the good news as the happiest moment of his life.

Location: Medina

630 CE

Destruction of Masjid al-Dirar

The hypocrites built a mosque near Quba ostensibly for worship but actually as a center of conspiracy against the Muslim community and as a base for Abu Amir al-Rahib, a monk who had allied with the Byzantines. They invited the Prophet to pray in it, but Allah revealed: 'And those who took a mosque for causing harm, disbelief, division among the believers, and as a station for whoever had warred against Allah and His Messenger before' (9:107). The Prophet ordered it demolished upon his return from Tabuk.

Location: Near Quba, Medina

630-631 CEMajor

Year of Delegations (Am al-Wufud)

The ninth year of Hijrah is known as the Year of Delegations. After the conquest of Mecca, tribes from all over Arabia sent delegations to the Prophet to declare their acceptance of Islam or negotiate alliances. Over 60 delegations arrived in Medina, including from Thaqif, Tamim, Abd al-Qays, Najran Christians, and the kings of Yemen and Oman. Islam spread peacefully across the peninsula as tribal leaders recognized the new political reality. The Prophet received each delegation with hospitality and wisdom.

Location: Medina

December 630 CE

Delegation of Thaqif and Acceptance of Islam by Ta'if

About a year after the failed siege of Ta'if, the Thaqif tribe sent a delegation to Medina to negotiate their acceptance of Islam. They initially asked to keep their idol al-Lat for three years, then one year, then one month, all of which the Prophet refused. They also asked to be exempted from prayer, but the Prophet said: 'There is no good in a religion that has no prayer.' They finally accepted all conditions. The Prophet sent Abu Sufyan ibn Harb and al-Mughirah ibn Shu'bah to destroy al-Lat.

Location: Medina (delegation from Ta'if)

March 631 CE

Abu Bakr Leads the Hajj

The Prophet appointed Abu Bakr to lead 300 Muslims in the Hajj pilgrimage while he remained in Medina. After Abu Bakr departed, the opening verses of Surah at-Tawbah were revealed, declaring disassociation from the polytheists and giving them four months to accept Islam or leave the sacred precinct. The Prophet sent Ali ibn Abi Talib to catch up with Abu Bakr and announce these verses at Mina. From this year onward, no polytheist was permitted to perform Hajj or circumambulate the Ka'bah naked.

Location: Mecca

October 630 CE

Death of the Negus (al-Najashi) of Abyssinia

The Negus (an-Najashi), the righteous Christian king of Abyssinia who had sheltered the Muslim refugees, died in the ninth year of Hijrah. The Prophet received news of his death through revelation on the same day and announced it to his companions: 'A righteous man has died today. Stand and pray for your brother Ashamah.' He led the funeral prayer (salat al-janazah) in absentia in Medina, the first recorded instance of this practice. This established the precedent for praying the funeral prayer for someone who dies in a distant land.

Location: Medina (prayer); Abyssinia (death)

November 630 CE

Death of Umm Kulthum, Daughter of the Prophet

Umm Kulthum, the Prophet's daughter and wife of Uthman ibn Affan, died in the ninth year of Hijrah. She had married Uthman after the death of her sister Ruqayyah. The Prophet wept at her funeral and sat by her grave. He said: 'If I had a third daughter, I would marry her to Uthman.' With her death, only Fatimah remained of the Prophet's daughters. Uthman was deeply grieved, and the Prophet consoled him.

Location: Medina

January 632 CE

Death of Ibrahim, Son of the Prophet

Ibrahim, the Prophet's infant son from Mariyah al-Qibtiyyah, died at about 16 months old. The Prophet wept and said: 'The eyes shed tears and the heart is grieved, but we say only what pleases our Lord. O Ibrahim, we are saddened by your departure.' A solar eclipse occurred that day, and people attributed it to Ibrahim's death. The Prophet corrected them: 'The sun and moon are signs of Allah. They are not eclipsed for the death or birth of anyone.' He then led the eclipse prayer.

Location: Medina

March 632 CEMajor

The Farewell Pilgrimage (Hajjat al-Wada')

The Prophet ﷺ performed his only Hajj, with over 100,000 Muslims joining him. He taught every ritual of Hajj by example, saying: 'Take your Hajj rites from me, for I may not perform Hajj after this.' He entered ihram at Dhul-Hulayfah, performed tawaf and sa'i, stood at Arafat on the 9th of Dhul-Hijjah, stayed at Muzdalifah, and completed the rites at Mina. This pilgrimage established the Hajj rituals practiced by Muslims to this day.

Location: Mecca and surrounding sacred sites

March 632 CEMajor

The Farewell Sermon (Khutbat al-Wada')

On the Day of Arafat, the Prophet ﷺ delivered his monumental Farewell Sermon to over 100,000 people. He declared the sanctity of life, property, and honor; abolished usury and blood feuds of pre-Islamic times; commanded good treatment of women; affirmed racial equality: 'No Arab has superiority over a non-Arab except by piety'; and left the Quran as the ultimate guide. He asked: 'Have I conveyed the message?' and the crowd thundered: 'Yes!' He said: 'O Allah, bear witness.'

Location: Plain of Arafat, Mecca

March 632 CEMajor

Revelation of the Verse of Completion of Religion

On the Day of Arafat during the Farewell Pilgrimage, Allah revealed: 'This day I have perfected for you your religion and completed My favor upon you and have approved for you Islam as religion' (5:3). When Umar heard this verse, he wept, sensing it signaled the approaching end of the Prophet's mission and life. A Jewish scholar told Umar that had such a verse been revealed to them, they would have made that day a festival. Umar replied that it was revealed on two Eids: Friday and the Day of Arafat.

Location: Plain of Arafat, Mecca

March 632 CEMajor

The Last Verse of the Quran Revealed

Scholars differ on which verse was the last to be revealed. The strongest opinions include: 'And fear a Day when you will be returned to Allah. Then every soul will be compensated for what it earned, and they will not be treated unjustly' (2:281), which Ibn Abbas narrated was the final verse. Others hold it was the completion verse (5:3) revealed at Arafat, or the verse on usury (2:278). Regardless of which was chronologically last, the revelation that had continued for 23 years came to its close.

Location: Arafat / Medina

May 632 CE

Expedition of Usamah ibn Zayd

Shortly before his death, the Prophet ﷺ appointed the 18-year-old Usamah ibn Zayd to lead an army to southern Palestine to avenge the martyrdom of his father Zayd ibn Harithah at Mu'tah. Some senior companions questioned the appointment of such a young commander. The Prophet firmly rebuked this, saying: 'If you criticize his leadership, you criticized his father's leadership before him, and by Allah, he was worthy of leadership.' The army was preparing to march when the Prophet fell ill.

Location: Medina (destined for Palestine)

May 632 CEMajor

Final Illness of the Prophet

The Prophet ﷺ fell severely ill with fever, beginning at the house of his wife Maymunah. He asked permission from his wives to be nursed in Aisha's room, which they granted. His fever was so intense that a companion touching his hand could feel the heat through a cloth. He continued to lead prayers when able, and when too weak, appointed Abu Bakr to lead in his place. He spent his final days giving the community its last instructions and freeing his slaves.

Location: Medina

June 632 CE

Prophet's Last Address in the Mosque

During a brief improvement in his illness, the Prophet ﷺ entered the mosque with his head bandaged, supported between Ali and al-Abbas. He addressed the community one final time, praising the Ansar and urging kindness toward them. He said: 'The people will increase and the Ansar will decrease, like salt in food. Whoever is given authority over the affairs of the Muslims, let him accept the good from them and overlook their faults.' He also said: 'A servant was given the choice between this world and what is with Allah, and he chose what is with Allah.' Abu Bakr wept, understanding.

Location: Masjid al-Nabawi, Medina

8 June 632 CEMajor

Death of Prophet Muhammad ﷺ

The Prophet ﷺ passed away on a Monday in Medina in the room of his wife Aisha, with his head resting on her lap. His last words included: 'With the highest companion' (al-Rafiq al-A'la), choosing the Hereafter when given the option. Umar was in shock and denied the death until Abu Bakr addressed the community with his famous words: 'Whoever worshipped Muhammad, then Muhammad has died. But whoever worshipped Allah, then Allah is alive and shall never die,' reciting Quran 3:144. He was buried where he passed away.

Location: Room of Aisha, Masjid al-Nabawi, Medina

560 CE

Abd al-Muttalib Rediscovers the Well of Zamzam

Abd al-Muttalib, the Prophet's grandfather and chief of Quraysh, was inspired through a dream to dig at a specific spot in the Haram to uncover the ancient well of Zamzam, which had been buried and lost for centuries since the time of the Jurhum tribe. Despite opposition from the Quraysh, he dug with his only son al-Harith and unearthed the well along with golden gazelles and swords that the Jurhum had buried in it. The rediscovery restored his family's prestige and custodianship of the sacred water.

Location: Ka'bah, Mecca

569 CE

Marriage of Abdullah and Aminah

Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib married Aminah bint Wahb of Banu Zuhrah. Abdullah was the youngest son of Abd al-Muttalib, chief of Quraysh, and had narrowly escaped being sacrificed by his father to fulfill a vow. Abd al-Muttalib had vowed to sacrifice a son if Allah granted him ten sons, and the lot fell on Abdullah. He was ransomed with one hundred camels after consulting a diviner. Aminah was among the most noble women of Quraysh.

Location: Mecca

632 CEMajor

Caliphate of Abu Bakr as-Siddiq

Abu Bakr was elected as the first caliph at the Saqifah of Banu Sa'idah. He immediately faced the crisis of tribes apostatizing and refusing to pay Zakat. He declared: 'By Allah, if they withhold even a goat-rope, I will fight them for it.' Under his leadership, the Riddah Wars reunified Arabia and the Muslim conquests of Iraq and Syria began.

Location: Medina

632 CEMajor

Battle of Yamama against Musaylimah

The fiercest battle of the Riddah Wars against the false prophet Musaylimah. Khalid ibn al-Walid led the Muslim forces to victory, but 700 Muslims were martyred including many huffadh. This prompted Abu Bakr to commission the first compilation of the Quran into a single manuscript under Zayd ibn Thabit.

Location: Yamama, Central Arabia

633 CEMajor

First Compilation of the Quran

After the heavy loss of Quran memorizers at Yamama, Umar convinced Abu Bakr to compile the Quran into a single manuscript. Zayd ibn Thabit was tasked with collecting every verse, requiring two witnesses for each. The completed manuscript was kept with Abu Bakr, then Umar, then Hafsah bint Umar.

Location: Medina

634-644 CEMajor

Caliphate of Umar ibn al-Khattab

Umar's decade as caliph saw the greatest territorial expansion in Islamic history. He conquered the Sassanid Empire, took the Levant and Egypt from Byzantines, established the Islamic calendar, created the diwan system, founded Basra and Kufa, and established the office of Qadi. His just rule earned him the title al-Faruq.

Location: Medina

636 CEMajor

Battle of al-Qadisiyyah

The decisive battle between the Muslim army under Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas and the Sassanid Persian army under Rustam Farrokhzad. Despite being heavily outnumbered, the Muslims won after three days of fierce fighting. This battle effectively ended the Sassanid Empire and opened Persia to Islam.

Location: al-Qadisiyyah, Iraq

637 CEMajor

Umar Receives the Keys of Jerusalem

Patriarch Sophronius surrendered Jerusalem to Caliph Umar personally. Umar entered humbly, wearing patched clothes. He gave the Christians the Covenant of Umar guaranteeing their safety and property. He refused to pray in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, fearing future Muslims would convert it into a mosque.

Location: Jerusalem

639-642 CEMajor

Muslim Conquest of Egypt

Amr ibn al-As led the Muslim conquest of Egypt, defeating the Byzantine garrison. He founded Fustat (Old Cairo) and built the first mosque in Africa. Egypt became a major center of Islamic civilization and learning, later producing institutions like al-Azhar.

Location: Fustat (Cairo), Egypt

644-656 CEMajor

Caliphate of Uthman ibn Affan

Uthman expanded the Islamic empire to its greatest extent under the Rashidun, conquered Armenia and parts of North Africa, and built the first Muslim navy. His greatest legacy was the standardization of the Quran into a single authorized text. He was martyred by rebels who besieged his house for 40 days.

Location: Medina

656-661 CEMajor

Caliphate of Ali ibn Abi Talib

Ali's caliphate was marked by the first civil war (fitna) in Islam. The Battle of the Camel, Battle of Siffin, and the emergence of the Khawarij divided the Muslim community. Ali was assassinated by the Kharijite Ibn Muljam while praying Fajr in Kufa's mosque.

Location: Kufa, Iraq

661 CEMajor

Establishment of the Umayyad Caliphate

Muawiyah ibn Abi Sufyan established the Umayyad dynasty in Damascus after the death of Ali. The Umayyads expanded Islam from Spain to Central Asia, built the Dome of the Rock, and Arabized the state administration. The dynasty ruled for nearly a century until overthrown by the Abbasids in 750 CE.

Location: Damascus, Syria

10 October 680 CEMajor

Martyrdom of Husayn at Karbala

Husayn ibn Ali, grandson of the Prophet ﷺ, was killed at Karbala by the forces of Yazid ibn Muawiyah. After being cut off from water for three days, Husayn and 72 of his companions were martyred on the 10th of Muharram. This event profoundly shaped Islamic history and consciousness.

Location: Karbala, Iraq

717-720 CEMajor

Caliphate of Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz

Often called the fifth Rightly Guided Caliph. He reversed Umayyad excesses, stopped the cursing of Ali from pulpits, redistributed wealth, and ordered the first systematic compilation of hadith. His just reign lasted only two and a half years.

Location: Damascus

711 CEMajor

Muslim Conquest of Spain (Al-Andalus)

Tariq ibn Ziyad crossed the strait with 7,000 soldiers and defeated the Visigothic King Roderic at the Battle of Guadalete. Within seven years, most of the Iberian Peninsula was under Muslim rule. Al-Andalus became one of the most advanced civilizations in medieval Europe.

Location: Gibraltar/Andalusia

732 CEMajor

Battle of Tours (Balat ash-Shuhada)

The Frankish army under Charles Martel defeated the Muslim forces of Abd ar-Rahman al-Ghafiqi near Tours, France. This battle marked the furthest extent of Muslim military advance into Western Europe, though its historical significance has been debated by modern historians.

Location: Tours, France

750 CEMajor

Abbasid Revolution

The Abbasid movement overthrew the Umayyad caliphate, establishing a new dynasty that moved the capital to Baghdad. The Abbasids presided over the Islamic Golden Age, a period of extraordinary advances in science, philosophy, medicine, and the arts.

Location: Iraq

762 CEMajor

Founding of Baghdad

Caliph al-Mansur built Baghdad as the new Abbasid capital, calling it Madinat al-Salam (City of Peace). The round city became the largest and most prosperous city in the world, the center of learning, trade, and culture during the Islamic Golden Age.

Location: Baghdad, Iraq

830 CEMajor

Founding of the House of Wisdom (Bayt al-Hikmah)

Caliph al-Ma'mun expanded the Bayt al-Hikmah into a major intellectual center in Baghdad. Scholars translated Greek, Persian, and Indian works into Arabic, preserving and advancing classical knowledge. Muslim scholars made original contributions to algebra, optics, medicine, and astronomy.

Location: Baghdad, Iraq

970 CEMajor

Founding of Al-Azhar University

The Fatimid general Jawhar as-Siqilli founded al-Azhar mosque in Cairo, which evolved into one of the world's oldest universities. Transformed into a Sunni institution by Salah ad-Din, it remains the most prestigious center of Sunni Islamic scholarship.

Location: Cairo, Egypt

1099 CEMajor

First Crusade and Fall of Jerusalem

European Crusaders captured Jerusalem after a month-long siege, massacring its Muslim and Jewish inhabitants. The Crusader states were established along the Levantine coast. This event shocked the Muslim world and eventually prompted the rise of Salah ad-Din.

Location: Jerusalem

1187 CEMajor

Salah ad-Din Recaptures Jerusalem

After his decisive victory at the Battle of Hattin, Salah ad-Din al-Ayyubi recaptured Jerusalem from the Crusaders. Unlike the Crusader conquest, he showed mercy to the inhabitants and allowed Christians to leave peacefully after paying a small ransom. Many who could not pay were freed.

Location: Jerusalem

1258 CEMajor

Mongol Destruction of Baghdad

Hulagu Khan's Mongol army sacked Baghdad, killing Caliph al-Musta'sim and an estimated hundreds of thousands of people. Libraries were destroyed, including the House of Wisdom. The Tigris ran black with ink from manuscripts and red with blood. This ended the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad.

Location: Baghdad, Iraq

1260 CEMajor

Battle of Ain Jalut

The Mamluk army under Sultan Qutuz and General Baybars defeated the Mongol army at Ain Jalut in Palestine. This was the first decisive Mongol defeat and saved Egypt, the Hijaz, and North Africa from destruction.

Location: Ain Jalut, Palestine

1492 CEMajor

Fall of Granada: End of Muslim Spain

The last Muslim kingdom in Spain, Granada, surrendered to Ferdinand and Isabella. Sultan Abu Abdullah (Boabdil) wept as he left, and his mother reportedly said: 'Weep like a woman for what you could not defend as a man.' The subsequent Spanish Inquisition forced Muslims to convert or flee.

Location: Granada, Spain

14th-16th CenturyMajor

Timbuktu's Golden Age of Islamic Learning

Under the Mali and Songhai Empires, Timbuktu became one of the greatest centers of Islamic learning. The Sankore Mosque university attracted scholars worldwide. Mansa Musa's legendary Hajj in 1324 brought international attention to Mali's wealth and scholarship.

Location: Timbuktu, Mali

1325-1354 CEMajor

Travels of Ibn Battuta

Ibn Battuta of Morocco embarked on the most extensive pre-modern journey recorded, traveling 120,000 km across the Islamic world and beyond: from West Africa to China. His Rihla remains a priceless historical document.

Location: Tangier to the world

1453 CEMajor

Ottoman Conquest of Constantinople

Sultan Muhammad al-Fatih conquered Constantinople at age 21, fulfilling the Prophet's hadith: 'You shall conquer Constantinople. What a wonderful leader its leader will be, and what a wonderful army that army will be.' The city was renamed Istanbul and became the Ottoman capital.

Location: Constantinople (Istanbul)

1520-1566 CEMajor

Ottoman Empire at Its Peak under Suleiman

Under Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent, the Ottoman Empire reached its zenith. The empire stretched from Hungary to Yemen, from Algeria to Iraq. Suleiman was renowned for his legal reforms (earning the title 'the Lawgiver'), his patronage of the arts, and the construction of magnificent mosques by his architect Sinan.

Location: Istanbul, Ottoman Empire

1526-1707 CEMajor

Mughal Empire and the Taj Mahal

Babur founded the Mughal Empire in India. Under Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb, it became one of the wealthiest empires in history. Shah Jahan built the Taj Mahal, while Aurangzeb expanded the empire to its greatest extent and commissioned the comprehensive Hanafi legal code Fatawa Alamgiriyyah.

Location: Delhi, India

1744 CEMajor

Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab's Reform Movement

Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab allied with Muhammad ibn Saud to establish the First Saudi State. His call to return to pure Tawhid and eliminate innovations and tomb veneration reshaped the religious landscape of Arabia.

Location: Diriyah, Arabia

1804 CEMajor

Uthman dan Fodio and the Sokoto Caliphate

The Fulani scholar Uthman dan Fodio established the Sokoto Caliphate in West Africa, the largest state on the continent. His reformist movement against syncretistic practices profoundly shaped the religious character of West Africa.

Location: Sokoto, Nigeria

1866 CEMajor

Founding of Darul Uloom Deoband

Scholars Muhammad Qasim Nanautawi and Rashid Ahmad Gangohi established the Deoband seminary in India. This institution pioneered Islamic education independent of state patronage and became one of the most influential Islamic movements in South Asia.

Location: Deoband, India

1798 CEMajor

Napoleon's Invasion of Egypt

Napoleon's invasion demonstrated European military superiority and was a shock to the Muslim world. Though the French were expelled within three years, the event catalyzed modernization movements across the Muslim world.

Location: Egypt

3 March 1924Major

Abolition of the Ottoman Caliphate

Mustafa Kemal Ataturk abolished the Ottoman Caliphate, sending the last caliph Abdulmejid II into exile. This left the Muslim world without a central religious-political authority for the first time in 1,300 years.

Location: Ankara, Turkey

1947-1948 CEMajor

UN Partition of Palestine and the Nakba

The UN voted to partition Palestine. The subsequent 1948 war led to the establishment of the State of Israel and the displacement of hundreds of thousands of Palestinians in what they call the Nakba (Catastrophe).

Location: Palestine

20th CenturyMajor

Islamic Revival Movements of the 20th Century

The 20th century saw major Islamic revival movements: Hasan al-Banna founded the Muslim Brotherhood (1928), Mawdudi founded Jamaat-e-Islami (1941), and various movements sought to restore Islamic identity in the face of colonialism and secularism.

Location: Egypt, South Asia

1955-presentMajor

Modern Expansion of the Two Holy Mosques

The Saudi government undertook massive expansions of Masjid al-Haram in Mecca and Masjid al-Nabawi in Medina. From accommodating thousands to millions, these expansions transformed the Hajj experience.

Location: Mecca and Medina

1992-1995 CEMajor

Bosnian Genocide and Srebrenica

During the Bosnian War, over 8,000 Muslim men and boys were massacred at Srebrenica. This was the worst atrocity in Europe since World War II and galvanized humanitarian response from the Muslim world.

Location: Srebrenica, Bosnia

2000s-presentMajor

Digital Age of Islamic Knowledge

The internet transformed access to Islamic knowledge. Websites like Quran.com and Sunnah.com made sacred texts freely accessible worldwide. Mobile apps for prayer times, Quran recitation, and Islamic education reached billions of Muslims.

Location: Global

657 CEMajor

Battle of Siffin

A major battle between the forces of Caliph Ali ibn Abi Talib and Muawiyah ibn Abi Sufyan over the killing of Uthman. The battle was inconclusive and led to arbitration. This conflict marked the first major civil war (fitnah) in Islam and had lasting consequences for the Muslim community.

Location: Siffin, Syria

657 CEMajor

Emergence of the Khawarij

After the Battle of Siffin, a group broke away from Ali's army, rejecting the arbitration. They became known as the Khawarij (those who went out). They declared both Ali and Muawiyah to be disbelievers, establishing a precedent of takfir (excommunication) that mainstream Islam rejected.

Location: Harura, Iraq

661 CEMajor

Assassination of Ali ibn Abi Talib

Ali ibn Abi Talib, the fourth Rightly-Guided Caliph, was struck by the poisoned sword of the Kharijite Abd ar-Rahman ibn Muljam while leading Fajr prayer at the mosque of Kufa. He died two days later. His assassination marked the end of the Rashidun Caliphate.

Location: Kufa, Iraq

870 CEMajor

Compilation of Sahih al-Bukhari

Imam Muhammad ibn Ismail al-Bukhari completed his monumental hadith collection, Sahih al-Bukhari, after sixteen years of meticulous work. He selected approximately 7,275 hadith from over 600,000 narrations he had collected. It is considered the most authentic book after the Quran by Sunni scholars.

Location: Bukhara, Central Asia

875 CEMajor

Compilation of Sahih Muslim

Imam Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj completed his Sahih, considered the second most authentic hadith collection. He selected approximately 7,500 hadith from 300,000 narrations. His methodology of organizing hadith by topic and gathering all chains for each narration in one place set a new standard in hadith scholarship.

Location: Nishapur, Iran

767 CEMajor

Death of Imam Abu Hanifa

Imam Abu Hanifa an-Nu'man ibn Thabit, the founder of the Hanafi school of jurisprudence, died in Baghdad. Known as al-Imam al-A'zam (the Greatest Imam), his school became the most widely followed in the Muslim world, predominant in Turkey, Central Asia, South Asia, and parts of the Middle East.

Location: Baghdad, Iraq

795 CEMajor

Death of Imam Malik ibn Anas

Imam Malik ibn Anas, the scholar of Medina and founder of the Maliki school, died in the city of the Prophet. His al-Muwatta is considered the earliest extant compilation of hadith and fiqh. The Maliki school became predominant in North Africa, West Africa, and parts of the Arabian Peninsula.

Location: Medina, Arabia

820 CEMajor

Death of Imam ash-Shafi'i

Imam Muhammad ibn Idris ash-Shafi'i, who revolutionized Islamic legal theory with his Risalah (the first systematic work on usul al-fiqh), died in Egypt. His school synthesized the approaches of the Medinan and Iraqi schools and became predominant in East Africa, Southeast Asia, and parts of the Middle East.

Location: Cairo, Egypt

855 CEMajor

Death of Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal

Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal, who endured imprisonment and torture during the Mihna (inquisition over the createdness of the Quran) rather than compromise his beliefs, died in Baghdad. His steadfastness earned him the title Imam Ahl us-Sunnah. His Musnad contains over 27,000 hadith.

Location: Baghdad, Iraq

833 CEMajor

The Mihna: Inquisition on the Quran's Nature

Caliph al-Ma'mun imposed the Mu'tazili doctrine that the Quran was created, testing scholars and imprisoning those who refused. Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal famously resisted, enduring flogging and imprisonment for two years. The Mihna lasted 15 years until Caliph al-Mutawakkil ended it, restoring the traditional Sunni position.

Location: Baghdad, Iraq

1111 CEMajor

Death of Imam al-Ghazali

Abu Hamid Muhammad al-Ghazali, known as Hujjat al-Islam (Proof of Islam), died in Tus. His Ihya Ulum ad-Din (Revival of the Religious Sciences) remains one of the most influential works in Islamic history, synthesizing fiqh, theology, and spirituality. He is credited with reviving orthodox Sunni scholarship.

Location: Tus, Iran

1187 CEMajor

Battle of Hattin

Salahuddin al-Ayyubi decisively defeated the Crusader armies at the Horns of Hattin near Lake Tiberias. The Muslim victory destroyed the main Crusader fighting force and led directly to the liberation of Jerusalem three months later. It remains one of the most celebrated military victories in Islamic history.

Location: Hattin, Palestine

1250 CEMajor

Establishment of the Mamluk Sultanate

The Mamluks, former slave-soldiers, seized power in Egypt following the death of the Ayyubid sultan. The Mamluk Sultanate would rule Egypt and Syria for over 250 years, stopping the Mongol advance at Ain Jalut, recapturing the remaining Crusader fortresses, and becoming the protectors of the holy cities of Mecca and Medina.

Location: Cairo, Egypt

1328 CEMajor

Imprisonment and Legacy of Ibn Taymiyyah

Sheikh al-Islam Ibn Taymiyyah died in the citadel prison of Damascus, where he had been imprisoned for his theological positions. Despite persecution, his works on theology, jurisprudence, and reform profoundly influenced later Islamic thought. His student Ibn al-Qayyim preserved and expanded upon his legacy.

Location: Damascus, Syria

1300 CEMajor

Islam Spreads to Southeast Asia

Muslim traders and scholars gradually brought Islam to the Malay Archipelago, establishing the Sultanate of Pasai in Sumatra as the first Muslim state in Southeast Asia. Islam spread peacefully through trade, marriage, and Sufi networks. Today, Indonesia has the world's largest Muslim population.

Location: Sumatra, Indonesia

1100 CEMajor

Islam Flourishes in West Africa

Islam spread across West Africa through trans-Saharan trade routes and scholarly networks. The empires of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai embraced Islam, with Mansa Musa of Mali becoming legendary for his pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324. Cities like Timbuktu became world-renowned centers of Islamic learning.

Location: Timbuktu, Mali

715 CEMajor

Construction of the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus

Caliph al-Walid ibn Abd al-Malik completed the Great Mosque of Damascus, one of the largest and oldest mosques in the world. Built on the site of a Roman temple and later a Christian cathedral, it set the architectural standard for mosques with its monumental courtyard, prayer hall, and minarets.

Location: Damascus, Syria

691 CEMajor

Construction of the Dome of the Rock

Caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan completed the Dome of the Rock on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem. Built over the rock from which the Prophet Muhammad ascended during the Mi'raj, it is one of the oldest and most iconic examples of Islamic architecture, with its magnificent golden dome and intricate mosaics.

Location: Jerusalem, Palestine

751 CEMajor

Battle of Talas

The Abbasid army under Ziyad ibn Salih defeated the Chinese Tang Dynasty forces at the Talas River in Central Asia. This battle halted Chinese expansion westward and secured Central Asia as part of the Muslim world. Chinese prisoners introduced papermaking technology to the Islamic world, revolutionizing knowledge transmission.

Location: Talas, Kyrgyzstan

830 CEMajor

Al-Khwarizmi Writes Al-Jabr (Algebra)

Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi wrote al-Kitab al-Mukhtasar fi Hisab al-Jabr wal-Muqabalah, founding the discipline of algebra. Working at the House of Wisdom in Baghdad, al-Khwarizmi also introduced Hindu-Arabic numerals to the Islamic world and developed the concept of the algorithm, named after him.

Location: Baghdad, Iraq

1025 CEMajor

Ibn Sina Writes the Canon of Medicine

Ibn Sina (Avicenna) completed his monumental al-Qanun fi at-Tibb (The Canon of Medicine), a five-volume medical encyclopedia that systematized Greek, Indian, and Islamic medical knowledge. It remained the standard medical textbook in both the Islamic world and European universities for over 600 years.

Location: Isfahan, Iran

1021 CEMajor

Ibn al-Haytham Writes Book of Optics

Abu Ali al-Hasan ibn al-Haytham completed his Kitab al-Manazir (Book of Optics), which revolutionized the understanding of light and vision. He proved that vision occurs when light enters the eye (rather than emanating from it) and pioneered the scientific method of experimentation. His work influenced Roger Bacon and Kepler.

Location: Cairo, Egypt

1406 CEMajor

Death of Ibn Khaldun

Abd ar-Rahman ibn Khaldun, the father of sociology and historiography, died in Cairo. His Muqaddimah introduced the concept of asabiyyah (social cohesion), analyzed the rise and fall of civilizations, and established history as a scientific discipline. His insights remain relevant to modern social science.

Location: Cairo, Egypt

1389 CEMajor

Ottoman Conquest of the Balkans

The Ottoman victory at the Battle of Kosovo established Muslim rule in the Balkans. Over the following centuries, Islam spread in the region through conversion and settlement. The Balkans became a bridge between the Islamic and Christian worlds, with significant Muslim populations in Bosnia, Albania, and Kosovo to this day.

Location: Kosovo

1529 CE

Siege of Vienna

Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent besieged Vienna, marking the furthest extent of Ottoman expansion into Central Europe. Though the siege was unsuccessful due to weather and supply issues, it demonstrated the military power of the Ottoman Empire at its peak and shaped European-Ottoman relations for centuries.

Location: Vienna, Austria

1648 CE

Construction of the Taj Mahal

Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan completed the Taj Mahal in Agra as a mausoleum for his wife Mumtaz Mahal. This masterpiece of Islamic architecture combines Persian, Turkish, and Indian design elements with white marble, calligraphy, and geometric patterns. It remains one of the most iconic buildings in the world.

Location: Agra, India

1520 CEMajor

Reign of Suleiman the Magnificent

Sultan Suleiman I ascended to the Ottoman throne, beginning a 46-year reign that marked the zenith of Ottoman power and culture. Known as al-Qanuni (the Lawgiver) in the Islamic world, he codified laws, patronized the arts, and oversaw the construction of great mosques by the architect Mimar Sinan.

Location: Istanbul, Turkey

1729 CE

First Printing Press in the Arab World

Ibrahim Muteferrika established the first Arabic-script printing press in Istanbul. While printing in European languages had existed for centuries, the Ottoman ulama initially resisted printing the Quran and religious texts mechanically. The press eventually revolutionized the dissemination of Islamic knowledge across the Muslim world.

Location: Istanbul, Turkey

1762 CEMajor

Shah Waliullah and Islamic Revival in India

Shah Waliullah ad-Dehlawi, one of the greatest scholars of the Indian subcontinent, passed away in Delhi. He translated the Quran into Persian, synthesized the four madhabs, bridged hadith and fiqh scholarship, and inspired reform movements. His intellectual legacy shaped the Deoband and Barelvi traditions.

Location: Delhi, India

988 CEMajor

Al-Azhar Becomes the World's First University

Al-Azhar mosque in Cairo, founded by the Fatimids in 970 CE, began functioning as a university, making it one of the oldest continuously operating universities in the world. Under Sunni rule, it became the preeminent center of Sunni scholarship, training scholars from across the Muslim world for over a millennium.

Location: Cairo, Egypt

900 CE

Islam on the Swahili Coast

Muslim traders from Arabia and Persia established settlements along the East African coast, creating a vibrant Swahili civilization that blended African, Arab, and Islamic cultures. Cities like Kilwa, Mombasa, and Zanzibar became major centers of trade and Islamic learning, connecting Africa to the wider Muslim world.

Location: Kilwa, Tanzania

796 CEMajor

Great Mosque of Cordoba Completed

The Great Mosque of Cordoba was expanded under Abd ar-Rahman I and his successors into one of the largest and most magnificent mosques in the world. Its forest of double-arched columns and red-and-white striped arches became an iconic symbol of Islamic civilization in Europe. Al-Andalus became a beacon of coexistence and learning.

Location: Cordoba, Spain

1198 CE

Ibn Rushd (Averroes) and Islamic Philosophy

Ibn Rushd (Averroes) of Cordoba, the last great Muslim philosopher of al-Andalus, died in Marrakesh. His commentaries on Aristotle and his defense of philosophy in Fasl al-Maqal profoundly influenced both Islamic and European thought. He argued that philosophy and religion are compatible paths to truth.

Location: Marrakesh, Morocco

1516 CEMajor

Battle of Marj Dabiq: Ottoman Conquest of the Mamluks

Sultan Selim I defeated the Mamluk Sultanate at Marj Dabiq near Aleppo. This victory led to Ottoman control of Syria, Egypt, and the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. The Ottoman sultan assumed the role of protector of the Haramain (the two holy mosques), a title of immense religious significance.

Location: Aleppo, Syria

646 CEMajor

Uthman's Standardization of the Quran

Caliph Uthman ibn Affan ordered the compilation of an official standardized text of the Quran based on the compilation made during Abu Bakr's caliphate. Copies were sent to major Islamic cities and variant personal collections were burned to prevent differences in recitation. This preserved the Quran's text in its original form.

Location: Medina, Arabia

1350 CEMajor

Death of Ibn al-Qayyim al-Jawziyyah

Shams ad-Din Ibn al-Qayyim al-Jawziyyah, the most prominent student of Ibn Taymiyyah, died in Damascus. His prolific writings on spirituality (Madarij as-Salikin), theology, jurisprudence, and Prophetic medicine made him one of the most widely read scholars in the Sunni tradition. He beautifully combined scholarly rigor with spiritual depth.

Location: Damascus, Syria

1277 CEMajor

Death of Imam an-Nawawi

Imam Yahya ibn Sharaf an-Nawawi died at just 45 years old, having produced an astonishing body of scholarship. His 40 Hadith collection, Riyadh as-Saliheen, commentary on Sahih Muslim, and Shafi'i fiqh manuals remain among the most studied Islamic texts worldwide. He never married, devoting his entire life to knowledge.

Location: Nawa, Syria

1449 CEMajor

Death of Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani

Imam Ahmad ibn Ali ibn Hajar al-Asqalani, known as Amir al-Mu'minin fi al-Hadith (Commander of the Faithful in Hadith), died in Cairo. His Fath al-Bari, the most celebrated commentary on Sahih al-Bukhari, took 25 years to complete and remains the gold standard of hadith scholarship.

Location: Cairo, Egypt

1000 CEMajor

Peak of the Islamic Golden Age

By the turn of the millennium, the Islamic world had reached unprecedented heights in science, medicine, mathematics, astronomy, philosophy, and literature. Muslim scholars translated and preserved Greek works, made original contributions in every field, and established institutions like hospitals, universities, and observatories that Europe would later emulate.

Location: Baghdad, Iraq

909 CEMajor

Establishment of the Fatimid Caliphate

The Fatimid dynasty, an Ismaili Shia caliphate, was established in North Africa before conquering Egypt and founding Cairo in 969 CE. Despite being Shia, the Fatimids generally tolerated Sunni scholarship and built al-Azhar mosque (later a Sunni institution). Their rule lasted until Salahuddin dissolved the caliphate in 1171 CE.

Location: Cairo, Egypt

1324 CEMajor

Mansa Musa's Pilgrimage to Mecca

Mansa Musa, the Muslim emperor of the Mali Empire, undertook his famous pilgrimage to Mecca with a caravan of 60,000 people and enormous quantities of gold. His lavish generosity along the way disrupted gold markets in Cairo and Medina. His journey put the Mali Empire on European maps and demonstrated the wealth of Muslim West Africa.

Location: Mecca, Arabia

650 CE

Islam Reaches China

During the caliphate of Uthman, a diplomatic mission reportedly reached China, establishing the first Muslim contact with the Chinese empire. Over the following centuries, Arab and Persian traders settled in Chinese port cities, and the Hui Muslim community grew along the Silk Road. Today, tens of millions of Muslims live in China.

Location: Guangzhou, China

693 CEMajor

Construction of Al-Aqsa Mosque

The Al-Aqsa Mosque was built by the Umayyad caliphs on the southern end of the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, near the Dome of the Rock. It became the third holiest mosque in Islam, where one prayer equals 500 prayers elsewhere according to hadith. Al-Aqsa has been a symbol of Islamic connection to Jerusalem ever since.

Location: Jerusalem, Palestine

1453 CE

Ottoman Millet System and Religious Tolerance

After conquering Constantinople, Sultan Mehmed II established the millet system, granting religious minorities (Christians and Jews) significant autonomy in their internal affairs, courts, and education. This system of religious tolerance became a hallmark of Ottoman governance for centuries and allowed diverse communities to coexist.

Location: Istanbul, Turkey

1571 CE

Battle of Lepanto

The Ottoman navy suffered a significant defeat against a coalition of European Christian navies at Lepanto in the Gulf of Patras. While the Ottomans quickly rebuilt their fleet, the battle marked the beginning of the decline of Ottoman naval dominance in the Mediterranean. However, the Ottoman Empire remained a major power for centuries after.

Location: Gulf of Patras, Greece

1932 CEMajor

Foundation of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Abd al-Aziz ibn Saud unified the Arabian Peninsula under his rule and declared the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The new state became the custodian of the two holy mosques in Mecca and Medina. The discovery of oil in 1938 transformed the kingdom into a major world power and enabled massive expansion of the Haramain.

Location: Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

1947 CEMajor

Indian Independence and Partition

British India was partitioned into India and Pakistan, creating the largest Muslim-majority nation by population at the time. The partition caused one of the largest mass migrations in history, with millions of Muslims moving to Pakistan and millions of Hindus moving to India. The event profoundly shaped the Muslim world.

Location: South Asia

1969 CE

Organization of Islamic Cooperation Founded

Following the arson attack on al-Aqsa Mosque, Muslim leaders founded the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) as a collective voice for the Muslim world. With 57 member states, the OIC became the second-largest intergovernmental organization after the United Nations, promoting Islamic solidarity and Palestinian rights.

Location: Rabat, Morocco

1979 CEMajor

Islamic Revolution in Iran

The Iranian Revolution overthrew the Shah and established an Islamic republic under Ayatollah Khomeini. While a Twelver Shia political event, it had profound implications for the entire Muslim world, reigniting debates about Islamic governance, the role of religion in politics, and sectarian dynamics.

Location: Tehran, Iran

1792 CE

Death of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab

Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, the reformist scholar of Najd, died. His call to return to pure monotheism and reject practices he considered innovations shaped the First Saudi State and influenced reform movements worldwide. His alliance with Muhammad ibn Saud in 1744 laid the foundation for modern Saudi Arabia.

Location: Diriyah, Arabia

1918 CEMajor

World War I and the Fall of the Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire, having entered World War I on the side of the Central Powers, was defeated and dismembered. The Sykes-Picot Agreement and subsequent mandates divided Muslim lands between Britain and France, creating artificial borders that remain sources of conflict. This marked the end of six centuries of Ottoman rule.

Location: Istanbul, Turkey

1505 CEMajor

Death of Imam as-Suyuti

Jalal ad-Din as-Suyuti, one of the most prolific scholars in Islamic history, died in Cairo. He authored over 500 works on hadith, tafsir, fiqh, Arabic language, and history. His Tafsir al-Jalalayn (co-authored with al-Mahalli), al-Itqan fi Ulum al-Quran, and Jami as-Saghir remain essential references today.

Location: Cairo, Egypt

1500 CE

Muslim Scholars' Influence on the European Renaissance

The European Renaissance was significantly fueled by the translation of Arabic scientific and philosophical texts into Latin, particularly through Muslim Spain and Sicily. Works of al-Khwarizmi, Ibn Sina, Ibn Rushd, al-Razi, and others transformed European medicine, mathematics, philosophy, and astronomy. The word 'algorithm' itself comes from al-Khwarizmi.

Location: Toledo, Spain

1979 CEMajor

Afghan Resistance Against Soviet Invasion

The Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan, triggering a decade-long resistance by Afghan mujahideen supported by Muslim volunteers from across the world. The Soviet withdrawal in 1989 was seen as a victory for faith against a superpower. However, the aftermath brought civil war and instability that continues to affect the Muslim world.

Location: Kabul, Afghanistan

1987 CE

First Palestinian Intifada

Palestinians in Gaza and the West Bank launched a popular uprising against Israeli occupation. The Intifada brought worldwide attention to the Palestinian cause and led to the Oslo Accords in 1993. The struggle for Palestinian rights remains a central concern for Muslims worldwide, particularly regarding the status of al-Aqsa Mosque.

Location: Gaza, Palestine

1064 CE

Death of Ibn Hazm al-Andalusi

Abu Muhammad Ali ibn Hazm, the greatest scholar of the Zahiri (literalist) school, died in exile in southern Spain. His encyclopedic works include al-Muhalla (comparative fiqh), al-Fisal (comparative religion), and Tawq al-Hamamah (The Ring of the Dove, on love). He was one of the most original and independent thinkers in Islamic history.

Location: Huelva, Spain

1010 CE

Ibn al-Haytham and the Camera Obscura

Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) described the camera obscura principle in his Book of Optics, demonstrating how light travels in straight lines and forms images through small apertures. This understanding laid the foundation for modern photography and cinema. His experimental methodology earned him recognition as the father of modern optics.

Location: Cairo, Egypt

1373 CEMajor

Death of Ibn Kathir

Imam Isma'il ibn Umar ibn Kathir, the renowned Shafi'i scholar and historian, died in Damascus. His Tafsir Ibn Kathir is the most widely read commentary on the Quran in the Sunni world, known for its use of hadith to explain Quranic verses. His al-Bidayah wan-Nihayah is a comprehensive history from creation to his time.

Location: Damascus, Syria

1700 CE

Early Muslim Presence in the Americas

Enslaved African Muslims brought Islam to the Americas during the transatlantic slave trade. Scholars like Bilali Muhammad of Sapelo Island and Omar ibn Said preserved their faith in bondage. Their stories, rediscovered in modern times, prove that Islam has been present in America since before the nation's founding.

Location: Americas

1905 CE

Muhammad Abduh and the Islamic Reform Movement

Muhammad Abduh, the Grand Mufti of Egypt and pioneer of Islamic modernism, died in Cairo. With his teacher Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani and his student Rashid Rida, Abduh sought to reconcile Islamic tradition with modern thought. Their journal al-Manar and Abduh's educational reforms at al-Azhar influenced Islamic thought across the Muslim world.

Location: Cairo, Egypt

1938 CE

Allama Iqbal and the Vision of Pakistan

Muhammad Iqbal, the philosopher-poet of the East, died in Lahore. His poetry in Urdu and Persian inspired the movement for a separate Muslim homeland in South Asia. His philosophical works, combining Islamic mysticism with modern thought, called for a renewal of Islamic civilization. He is considered the spiritual father of Pakistan.

Location: Lahore, Pakistan

1955 CEMajor

Modern Expansion of the Two Holy Mosques

Saudi Arabia began the first of several massive expansions of the Grand Mosque in Mecca and the Prophet's Mosque in Medina to accommodate the growing number of pilgrims. These expansions, continuing into the 21st century, transformed the Haramain into the largest mosques in the world, capable of hosting millions of worshippers simultaneously.

Location: Mecca, Saudi Arabia