# Muslim Conquest of Egypt

The Muslim conquest of Egypt (20-21 AH / 641-642 CE) was led by Amr ibn al-As (may Allah be pleased with him) and brought one of the most ancient civilizations in human history under Islamic rule. The campaign ended centuries of Byzantine control over Egypt and opened the path for Islam to spread across North Africa.

Background

Egypt had been a province of the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire since the Roman conquest centuries earlier. By the seventh century CE, the native Coptic Christian population chafed under Byzantine rule. The Copts followed the Monophysite doctrine, which Constantinople considered heretical. Byzantine governors imposed heavy taxes and religious persecution on the Copts, creating deep resentment.

After the Muslim victories at Yarmouk (15 AH) and the fall of Syria and Palestine to the Muslim forces, Amr ibn al-As proposed to the Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab (may Allah be pleased with him) that Egypt should be taken. Umar initially hesitated, recognizing the scale of such an undertaking, but eventually granted permission.

The Campaign

Amr ibn al-As set out from Palestine in late 19 AH (December 639 CE) with approximately 4,000 men. This was a remarkably small force for invading a territory with a population of several million. The army crossed the Sinai and entered Egypt from the northeast.

The Siege of Pelusium (Al-Farama)

The first major engagement was at Pelusium (al-Farama), the ancient fortress city guarding Egypt's eastern frontier. After a month-long siege, the Muslims took the city in Muharram 20 AH (January 640 CE). The fall of Pelusium opened the road into the Egyptian heartland.

Bilbeis and Umm Dunain

The Muslim army continued westward, taking Bilbeis after a brief siege. A significant engagement occurred at Umm Dunain, near the apex of the Nile Delta, where the Muslims defeated a larger Byzantine force. Reinforcements of 4,000 additional soldiers arrived from Madinah, doubling Amr's fighting strength.

The Battle of Heliopolis (Ain Shams)

The decisive battle of the campaign took place at Heliopolis (Ain Shams) in Jumada al-Akhirah 20 AH (July 640 CE). The Byzantine commander Theodorus assembled a large force to stop the Muslim advance. Amr divided his army into three groups, using the terrain to draw the Byzantines into an unfavorable position. The resulting Muslim victory was decisive and effectively ended organized Byzantine resistance in open country.

The Fortress of Babylon

The Byzantines retreated to the massive Fortress of Babylon (Qasr al-Sham), located at the head of the Nile Delta near modern Cairo. This formidable stronghold had walls over 18 meters high and was garrisoned by a substantial force. The siege lasted seven months.

During the siege, the Muqawqis (Cyrus of Alexandria), who served as both the Coptic Patriarch and Byzantine governor, attempted to negotiate surrender. However, the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius rejected any peace terms and ordered continued resistance. After Heraclius died in February 641 CE, the political situation in Constantinople descended into chaos, leaving the Egyptian garrison without clear direction.

The Fortress of Babylon finally fell in Rabi al-Awwal 21 AH (April 641 CE) after a determined Muslim assault.

Alexandria

Alexandria, the great Mediterranean port and one of the most important cities in the ancient world, was the last major Byzantine stronghold. Rather than endure another prolonged siege, the Muqawqis negotiated the Treaty of Alexandria in late 21 AH (November 641 CE). The treaty gave the Byzantines eleven months to evacuate and guaranteed the safety and religious freedom of the Christian and Jewish populations.

The Muslims entered Alexandria peacefully in Shawwal 21 AH (September 642 CE).

The Founding of Fustat

Rather than making Alexandria his capital, Amr ibn al-As established a new garrison city called Fustat near the Fortress of Babylon. According to tradition, when Amr prepared to march on Alexandria, a dove had nested in his tent (fustat). He left the tent standing, and the city that grew around that location took its name from it. Fustat would eventually grow into one of the greatest cities of the medieval world, and its location corresponds to Old Cairo today.

Amr also built the first mosque in Egypt and in Africa, known as the Mosque of Amr ibn al-As, which still stands (though much rebuilt) in Old Cairo.

Treatment of the Population

The Muslim conquest brought significant relief to the Coptic population. The Muslims abolished the religious persecution that the Byzantines had imposed and allowed the Copts to practice their faith freely. The jizya (poll tax) imposed on non-Muslims was generally lighter than the taxes the Byzantines had extracted. Many Copts initially welcomed the Muslim rulers as liberators from Byzantine oppression.

Umar ibn al-Khattab instructed Amr to treat the people of Egypt with justice, reminding him of the Prophet's (peace and blessings be upon him) advice to treat the Copts well, as they had ties of kinship (through Hajar, the mother of Ismail) and protection (through Mariyah, the mother of the Prophet's son Ibrahim).

Legacy

The conquest of Egypt was one of the most consequential events in Islamic history. It gave the Muslim state control over the breadbasket of the ancient Mediterranean, vastly increasing its economic resources. Egypt's agricultural wealth, particularly its grain production, had sustained the Roman and Byzantine empires for centuries.

The conquest also opened the path for Islam to spread westward across North Africa, eventually reaching the Atlantic coast and crossing into the Iberian Peninsula. Egypt became a center of Islamic learning and culture, producing scholars, theologians, and institutions that shaped the Muslim world for centuries to come.

Sources

al-Tabari, Tarikh al-Rusul wal-Muluk
Ibn Abd al-Hakam, Futuh Misr (Conquest of Egypt)
al-Baladhuri, Futuh al-Buldan
Ibn al-Athir, al-Kamil fit-Tarikh