# The Expansion of the Haramayn: Serving the Pilgrims and the Controversies of Development

Two Cities, Two Mosques, and the Obligations of Custodianship

Masjid al-Haram in Mecca and Masjid al-Nabawi in Medina are the two holiest places in Islam — sites toward which the hearts of over a billion Muslims are oriented daily and to which millions travel annually for Hajj and Umrah. Their management, expansion, and preservation have been among the most significant responsibilities borne by the rulers of the Arabian Peninsula and, since 1924 CE (1343 AH), by the Saudi state that controls them.

The title "Khadim al-Haramayn al-Sharifayn" — Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques — was formally adopted by King Fahd ibn Abd al-Aziz in 1986 CE (1406 AH), though the Saudi rulers' sense of this responsibility predated the formal title. The physical expansion projects undertaken under Saudi rule represent the largest investment in Islamic pilgrimage infrastructure in history — and also some of the most contested decisions affecting the preservation of Islamic heritage.

The Situation in 1924: What the Saudis Inherited

When Ibn Saud's forces captured Mecca in October 1924 and the Hejaz fully came under Saudi control by 1926, the Haramayn were Ottoman-era structures. Masjid al-Haram had been expanded and renovated multiple times over the centuries, with significant Ottoman contributions in the 16th century under Suleiman the Magnificent. The mosque could accommodate perhaps 50,000 worshippers. Masjid al-Nabawi, similarly, was an Ottoman-era structure significantly expanded from the original mosque of the Prophet ﷺ but still of modest capacity relative to what would be needed.

The number of pilgrims performing Hajj at the time was approximately 60,000-100,000 annually — a fraction of the millions who would come with the improvements in transportation technology in the later 20th century. The challenges of managing Hajj with 19th-century infrastructure for 21st-century numbers were not yet apparent.

The Demolition of Ottoman and Earlier Structures

The first major controversy of Saudi management of the holy sites began almost immediately after the capture of Mecca. The Wahhabi religious establishment that came to power with Ibn Saud had a well-documented opposition to structures built over graves and sites of historical significance, on the grounds that they had become sites of veneration that bordered on or constituted shirk (polytheism) in their view.

In 1925-1926, the Wahhabi religious authorities oversaw the demolition of the historic Jannat al-Baqi cemetery in Medina — where numerous Companions of the Prophet ﷺ, his wives (Ummahat al-Mu'minin), his daughter Fatima al-Zahra (رضي الله عنها), and other members of his family were buried. The domed tombs over these graves were demolished. Similarly, the Jannat al-Mu'alla cemetery in Mecca — where the Prophet's ﷺ wife Khadija (رضي الله عنها) and grandfather Abd al-Muttalib were buried — was cleared of its structures.

The demolitions generated immediate protests from Muslims worldwide, particularly from the Shia community (for whom the graves of the Imams in Baqi' had particular religious significance) but also from Sunni Muslims who felt that the destruction of graves connected to the Prophet's ﷺ family and Companions was disrespectful to Islamic heritage. The scholarly debate about the permissibility of structures over graves is a real jurisprudential discussion within Ahl us-Sunnah — the Shafi'i and Maliki schools have positions more permissive of commemorative markers than the Hanbali school dominant in Saudi Arabia. The demolitions represented the imposition of one jurisprudential position on sites of global Islamic significance.

The First Saudi Expansion: 1955-1973

The first major expansion of Masjid al-Haram under Saudi rule was carried out beginning in 1955 CE (1375 AH) under King Saud ibn Abd al-Aziz. The project significantly enlarged the mosque's prayer area, added new arcades and minarets, expanded the Sa'i corridor (where pilgrims walk between Safa and Marwa), and improved sanitation and water infrastructure. The capacity was expanded from approximately 50,000 to several hundred thousand worshippers.

The expansion required the demolition of historic Ottoman structures that surrounded the Masjid al-Haram — structures that had stood for centuries and that contained significant architectural and historical interest. The priority given to capacity over preservation established a pattern that would continue in subsequent expansions.

The Second Saudi Expansion and the Masjid al-Nabawi: 1984-2012

King Fahd's reign saw the most significant expansion programs to that point. The Second Saudi Expansion of Masjid al-Haram, begun in 1984 CE (1404 AH), expanded the mosque's capacity to over 800,000 worshippers. The project included the iconic Fahd Gate, the expansion of the Sa'i corridor to a multi-level structure, and the installation of retractable umbrella structures in the outer courtyards.

The simultaneous expansion of Masjid al-Nabawi in Medina was equally dramatic. The expansion by King Fahd and subsequently King Abdullah transformed the mosque from its Ottoman-era footprint into a massive modern complex with a capacity exceeding 1 million worshippers. The green dome over the Prophet's ﷺ tomb was retained — a concession to Muslim sentiment that would have been politically impossible to remove — but the Ottoman-era structures surrounding the mosque were demolished to make way for the expansion.

Abraj al-Bait and the Ottomanization Controversy

The construction of the Abraj al-Bait complex — a massive tower development directly adjacent to Masjid al-Haram, including the Makkah Royal Clock Tower (at its completion in 2012 one of the tallest buildings in the world) — represents the intersection of pilgrimage expansion with commercial development and has generated some of the sharpest criticism.

The development required the demolition of the Ottoman-era Ajyad Fortress, built in 1780 CE to defend Mecca, and significant portions of the historic Ajyad Hill. Turkey protested the demolition of the fortress as the destruction of Ottoman heritage; UNESCO expressed concern. The Saudi government proceeded regardless. The site now contains hotels, shopping malls, and the clock tower complex — providing accommodation for millions of pilgrims but also generating billions in commercial revenue.

The broader critique: the commercialization of the area surrounding Masjid al-Haram has transformed Mecca's historic environment into one that resembles a luxury hotel district more than a sacred city. Luxury hotels with views of the Ka'ba are marketed at premium prices; five-star restaurants and shopping facilities line the approaches to the mosque. Critics argue that this environment — whatever its logistical utility — is theologically incongruous with the spirit of Hajj, whose purpose is to strip away worldly distinctions and focus exclusively on God.

The Expansion Continues: King Abdullah and King Salman Projects

King Abdullah's expansion project (2007-2013) added the massive King Abdullah Expansion of Masjid al-Haram, including the King Fahd and King Abdullah gates, new pedestrian bridges, and air-conditioned tent facilities for Mina. The expansion raised the mosque's capacity to approximately 2.2 million worshippers inside the mosque and an estimated 4 million in the broader surrounding area.

King Salman's Grand Mosque Expansion Project, announced in 2016 CE (1437 AH), is the most ambitious yet — proposing to expand the mosque to accommodate 2.5 million worshippers simultaneously and upgrade the surrounding infrastructure. The project involves significant demolition of remaining historic structures in the Ajyad, Shamiya, and Misfalah neighborhoods.

The Safety Record: Tragedies in the Crowd

The management of Hajj at its current scale — with 2-3 million pilgrims concentrated in a small geographic area over a short period — has been associated with several deadly incidents:

The Mina tunnel stampede of 1990 killed 1,426 pilgrims in a tunnel connecting Mecca and Mina. The 2006 Mina bridge stampede killed 346 pilgrims during the Jamarat (stoning of the devil) ritual. The 2015 Mina stampede — the deadliest incident in Hajj history — killed at minimum 769 pilgrims according to Saudi official counts, with other estimates suggesting over 2,000 deaths based on foreign government casualty reports and media investigation.

These incidents have generated calls for improved crowd management, better infrastructure design, and more transparent accident reporting. The Saudi government has implemented significant upgrades to the Jamarat facilities (converting the single-column stoning structure to a multi-level bridge to distribute crowds) and expanded pedestrian infrastructure.

The Preservation Debate: What Is Lost

The historian Ziauddin Sardar, in his book Mecca: The Sacred City, provides a comprehensive accounting of what has been lost in the development of Mecca: the house of Khadija (رضي الله عنها), the Prophet's ﷺ birthplace (now a library), the homes of the first Caliphas, the Ottoman-era minarets and gates, the historic quarters of the city. Sardar estimates that 95% of Mecca's 1,000-year-old buildings have been demolished in the past 50 years.

The preservation debate is not simple. The alternative to development — maintaining historic structures while restricting access to the levels the physical environment could accommodate — would have denied the Hajj experience to tens of millions of Muslims who make it today. The infrastructure demands of modern mass pilgrimage are real. But the wholesale destruction of Islamic heritage — buildings connected directly to the Prophet ﷺ, his family, and the first Muslim community — represents an irreversible loss that many Muslims worldwide mourn.

The balance between serving living Muslims' pilgrimage needs and preserving the physical heritage of the first Muslim community is a genuine and unresolved tension in the management of the Haramayn. It is a responsibility that the global Muslim community has a legitimate interest in, not merely a domestic Saudi policy matter.

Sources:

Sardar, Ziauddin. Mecca: The Sacred City. Bloomsbury, 2014.
Peters, F.E. The Hajj: The Muslim Pilgrimage to Mecca and the Holy Places. Princeton University Press, 1994.
Al-Rasheed, Madawi. A History of Saudi Arabia. Cambridge University Press, 2002.
Mouline, Nabil. The Clerics of Islam: Religious Authority and Political Power in Saudi Arabia. Yale University Press, 2014.
Doumato, Eleanor Abdella. "Saudi Arabia." In The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World, ed. John Esposito. Oxford University Press, 2009.
UNESCO. Statement on the demolition of Ajyad Fortress, Mecca. 2002.
Glubb, John Bagot. Arabia Felix: The Story of the Great Desert Caravan Route. Hodder and Stoughton, 1978.

Modern Expansion of the Two Holy Mosques