Chapter 6

A General Study of Umawi and Abbasi Caliphates Part One The caliphates of Banu Umayyah and the Abbasids are over. But their study conjures up a small picture of their Caliph's rule, power, conquests and battles. What the historians in general write about the condition of the kings and rulers has been narrated above. The art of writing history has improved and it also looks into the principles of government, society, educational institutions of the times and the governments of the time period in question. Twice the amount of pages of this short history would be required to fulfill these requirements and cannot be fully delved into in these volumes. Taking into consideration these deficiencies, a few facts are given below on the authority of some reliable books.

Important positions and offices of the Government The caliphate of Banu Umayyah was a victorious and international government during its period of rule the Arabs were regarded as The History of Islam victors and other nations as the vanquished. The Arabs had religions zeal and to them no laws except the laws of the Quran and the Sunnah of the Prophet(~ ) were binding and a practicable. The Muslims fought among themselves but the common life style of the inhabitants of the Islamic countries like Arabia, Syria, Egypt and Iraq and the restoration of peace despite internal invasions and battles did not demand any complex system of the government. The Caliph sought consultation but he was not compelled to seek it either. He received consultation, which was unsolicited and sometimes he had to accept it. The plain living of the Arabs was reflected in their government as well.

Even an ordinary Bedouin could have access to the Caliph and his royal presence did not reduce their linguistic power. The Caliph sent deputies to rule over the provinces and states and they enjoyed total power and royal support there. The Caliph was the ruler of the entire Islamic world similarly he was also its commander-in-chief. The Governors of the Provinces and States were the Kings and the commanders of their Provinces or States. They were also the religious heads 'Imams' and Chief Judge. Whenever the Caliph had any doubt regarding a religious issue, he had no inhibitions in consulting the religious and legal scholars.

Similarly, the Governors and the rulers of States also had to seek their opinions. Sometimes a Governor was appointed for a province and along with him the Caliph appointed another person as chief judge. The functions of the governor were to maintain law and order in the country, to invade, to be always ready for defense against the enemies, to protect the subjects and to collect taxes and deposit them in the treasury. The functions of the judges were to promulgate Islamic laws, to settle disputes and force the people to uphold the Islamic law. The judge was not dependent upon the governor. Sometimes along with the judge and governor, a tax collector was separately appointed by the Caliph who handled all financial matters.

In that case, the Governor was the commander of the armies. In short, simplicity was the hallmark of the caliphate of Banf'Umayyah. All grievances were redressed in the light of Islamic law and the subjects were happy and prosperous due to the system of equal justice. They were neither unduly taxed nor was it necessary for the Caliph to spend lavishly on the administration. The Caliph was considered to be A General Study of Umawi and Abbasi Caliphates the spiritual head of the whole Islamic world as well as the temporal ruler. For this reason it was easier to maintain peace in the country.

There was no regular post of minister or advisor. During an emergency, anyone could discharge the duties of minister or advisor. During the Abbasid caliphate, the Iranians and the Turks began to enjoy the rights of the victorious or conquering nation besides the Arabs and by degree, the vanquished nations grew more powerful. Therefore, complications developed in the administration. If the Arabs, the Iranians and the Turks were kept on an equal footing according to the Islamic laws and real equality was maintained, there would have appeared more simplicity and virtue in the administration than had been available even during Banu Umayyah's times. Unfortunately, situations kept cropping up and opposition and rivalry between these nations kept increasing.

The greatest cause for this was that the Iranians were preferred over the Arabs. The Caliph's court adopted the Iranian and the Sasanid way of living and rejected the comfortable simplicity of the Arabs. Because of this, the Islamic caliphate suffered so many complications that gave way gradually to the decline in reliability, power and ultimately led to its end. However, the purpose here is to present a list of the major portfolios of the Abbasid Caliphate. The Prime Minister In the beginning, the Caliph had only one minister and he fully acted as the Caliph's deputy and head of all departments. Later on, when it transpired that one man could not do justice to all the departments, other ministers under the Prime Minister were appointed.

There were matters, which only the Caliph was authorized to do and only the Prime Minister could advise him. At the time of seeking opinion, the Caliph invited not only the Prime Minister but also the other members of the government to participate. Some caliphs for instance Caliph Haroon Rasheed had vested all powers to his Prime Minister in matters of the administration of the country. The Prime Minister himself issued all kinds of instructions and the Caliph was formally informed of them. Such powerful ministers enjoyed high status and they were regarded as having more authority than the Caliph himself. The History of Islam Later the caliphs began to grow weaker and the Dailami, Amirul Omara or Seljuk, Sultan imposed themselves on the caliphate both the Caliph and the Sultan had their own separate Prime Minister.

In those times, to be the minister of the Caliph was not a major position. During this dual charge regime sometimes the Caliph's minister was called president and the Sultan's minister was named minister. Sometimes the Caliph's minister enjoyed more powers than the Caliph and when the Sultan appointed the Caliph's minister, the Caliph would be his own minister's prisoner. The Caliph used to select the Prime Minister on the basis of his personal knowledge and sometimes he gave the royal robe of the ministry to a man of a lower stratum of society and raised him to the pinnacle of prestige and sometimes a minister's son succeeded his father as minister. Haroon Rasheed's minister Jafar Barmuk, Mamoon Rasheed's ·"'minister Fadal, Alp Arsalan and Malik Shah's minister Nizamul Mulk are famous ministers. Amirul Omara (Chief Executive) This post was created during the declining period of the Abbasid caliphs.

Having imposed themselves on the Caliph, the people chose thistitle for themselves and were granted it from the Caliph. These Amirul Omara were in fact the rulers of Iraq, Iran, and Khorasan and they appointed all their office bearers. The Caliph was a Caliph only in name or only for the purpose of the official oath. The Dailamis' (Buyids) period lasted for 100 years and their rulers were all called Amirul Omara. The Sultan (King) Just as the Dailamis chose Amirul Omara as their title, similarly the Seljuks selected the title Sultan for themselves. These Seljuk Sultans were more powerful, more religious, ruled over wider and larger territories and were more loyal to the Caliph than the Dailamis.

The Dailamis had seized all the power and influence of the Caliph's court. The Seljuks recognized the Caliph's greatness and allowed them to rule and it was during their regimes to a great extent that the caliphs succeeded in their attempt to get back their power and glory. There A General Study of Umawi and Abbasi Caliphates were no posts of Amirul Omara and Sultan in the beginning of the Abbasid caliphate. Amil or Wali (Governor) The governors of the provinces and states used to send a fixed amount of his revenue every year to the Caliph's court. He enjoyed absolute liberty in the inner administration of the province and he used to send a fixed amount annually to the Caliph's treasury. It was on a contract basis in most cases.

Another form was, the Amir used to send the surplus amount after the annual expenditures were deducted, in this case he had to justify the income and expenditure of his province and he was not responsible to pay a fixed sum. The border provinces, which were far away from the capital usually, used the contract form. A very small sum was realized from those provinces as tax and sometimes the reading of the Caliph's name in the Friday sermon was considered sufficient. The change or removal of the governors in these provinces was not regarded as necessary until they betrayed, opposed or rebelled but the governors of the other provinces were changed after short intervals. Sahebu Shurta (Police General) The man responsible for maintaining law and order in the cities, quelling rebellions and arresting thieves and robbers was known as 'Sahebu Shurta'. We may call him the Chief of Police.

This man had his headquarters in Baghdad and appointed deputies in the other cities of Iraq. Sometimes he was the commander in chief of the Iraqi forces and the Governor of a Province. Tahir bin Husain was the Sahebu Shurta who ultimately became the governor of Khorasan. This was a very responsible post and no ordinary man would be appointed to it. Hajib (Chief Body Guard) Besides being the Caliph's bodyguard and the officer of bodyguards, the Hajib had a highly intimate relation with the Caliph. He always accompanied him at home and on journeys and was the trusted man in his privacy.

All the servants of the Caliph's palace and the The History of Islam watchmen of the police were his subordinates. He was ever ready to teach manners to every new entrant to the Caliph's court and to carry out all his commandments. At times the Prime Minister had to yield to the Hajib. He was the Caliph's confidant and shared his secrets. Haroon Rasheed had Jafar Barmuk killed by his Hajib, Masroor. Qadiul Qudat (Chief Justice) The permanent post of the Qadiul Qudat (Chief Justice) was first created by Haroon Rasheed, this post contimied until the end of the Abbasid period.

The Qadiul Qudat appointed his deputies in all provinces and territories on his own authority. His main functions were to see that the people followed the Shariah laws and to settle disputes. It was a very high post. His position at the court was in no way inferior to that of the commander-in-chief and the Prime Minister. A new Caliph was accorded the status of the real Caliph only when the Qadiul Qudat recognized him as such. It was the Qadiul Qudat who issued the Fatwah (legal religious pronouncements) for the dismissal of the Caliph.

The Caliph could sack the Qadiul Qudat but at the time of the accession of a new Caliph, the Qadiul Qudat's approval was essential. In important matters concerning invading a country or appointing the governor of a province he was consulted. If the Caliph, in the capacity of the commander-in-chief, invaded a country, the Qadiul Qudat accompanied him or he sent a deputy with each army. His seal on pacts, agreements, documents of Governorship, important commandme1~ts of the Caliph and wills was compulsory. Raisul Askar (Army Chief) Though every Caliph, every Amir, every minister and every important person could be the commander, there was a Raisul Askar or the commancfer-in-chief of the regular army of the Caliph. It was not a permanent post.

Every division of an army had a commander. The Caliph could appoint who ever he liked as the Commander-inchief. The commar:ider of big and important expeditions was generally the Raisul Askar. A General Study of Umawi and Abbasi Caliphates Mohtasib (Inspector) The duty of a Mohtasib was to make rounds in the city, deter the people from violating the Shariah laws and punish them for committing misdeeds. They morally reinforced them by helping to remind the people to implement their Islam in the market places and other public places. He was subordinate to the Qadiul Qudat and was under the Chief of Police's authority.

In modern terminology, we may call him a municipal inspector. He was also authorized to inspect the , weights and measures of the traders?and shopkeepers and arrest and punish any defaulters. A Mohtasib along with his subordinate staff was appointed in every town and market complex. Nazir or Mushrif (Vigilant) The Caliph appointed a Mushrif to look after all the government departments. He was given the status of a minister. A separate Mushrif or inspector for each department was appointed under him.

After receiving reports from all the departments, the Mushriful Ala (Chief Inspector) presented a report to the Caliph. They were an internal department for the improvement of the administrations efficiency. ·sahebu Bareed (Postmaster General) The Caliph appointed Sahebul Bareed or Postmaster General to run and look after the Postal department in each province. His duty was to see to the departure of the royal post and arrange the horses at outposts for the messengers. It was his responsibility to see that a proper number of horses, mules or camels were always kept ready. It was his duty to gather news and information of important events from all the provinces and communicate it to the Caliph's court. He had a body of sleuths under his command they supplied information about the subjects, the officers and the conditions of the departments of each province.

He appointed his deputies in every city. This department dispatched public letters from one place to another. It also used pigeons for sending messages. The Postmaster General kept with him a register that contained the details about every post office, location, directions, and distances of the outposts and the list of the staff. The History of Islam Katib (Secretary) The Caliph appointed a Katib (Secretary). He held the rank of minister.

His duty was to read to the Caliph the letters from abroad, write orders, issue instructions at the command of the Caliph and keep the necessary documents in safe custody. He had under him the offices of different departments such as the office housing the copies of royal orders, the registry office, and the office of military communications. Amirul Minjaniq (Military Engineer) He held the post of chief military engineer. Making roads, selecting places suitable for a battlefield and encampments, pulling down the enemies' forts and fortifications were part of his duties. His counsel ancl: proposals regarding laying siege to forts or cities were given specific importance. ,,,,. Amirut Tamir or Raisul Banna (Chief Architect) He was the chief Engineer.

He was responsible for construt:ting and repairing the royal palaces, public works construction projects, digging canals, constructing bridges and embankments. Amirul Bahr (Naval Commander) The chief of the warships and all naval forces was called Amirul Bahr. There were many officers under him and each of them had a war ship under his own command and reported to the Amirul Bahr. Tabib (Doctor) Tabib was the chief medical officer. More than one experienced and efficient doctor was always present at the court of the Caliph and in the capital. They took part in academic meets and were part of the community of intellectuals.

Many hospitals and medicine shops were run at government expense under his supervision. They came from all countries and religions. A General Study of Umawi and Abbasi Caliphates Other Important Departments and Offices Though considered to be an independent ruler the Caliph was not supposed to rule with absolute impunity. When he was made Caliph and the oath was taken for him, he had to take a pledge that he would follow the Quran and the Prophet's traditions. The Scholars and legal experts had a right to object to any unlawful acts and were able to control him. If the Caliph's power came in conflict with their rights the subjects would fight against him and support the scholars and experts to the point of deposing the Caliph.

Sometimes the scholars evaded discharging their duties and that led to corruption and weakness. Sometimes the Caliph would take advantage of his greatness and grandeur and issue orders without consulting anyone and have them implemented. However generally, all the public work was done in accordance with certain fixed rules and regulations and thus the government machinery used to run smoothly. That is why despite battles among the Sultans and dissension among the Amirs, the masses still had the opportunity to make progress in the arts and sciences and become more cultured and disciplined during the reign of the Abbasid caliphate. In the beginning of the Abbasid caliphate, the foundations of different arts and sciences were made. Invaluable documentation had already established.

Then the Abbasid caliphate began to lose strength but the pace of development of their arts and sciences and inventions did not slow down. One of its greatest contributions was the implementation of a system of government, which was based on Islamic principles that remained undisturbed even after the government had become weak with battles and strife. Even during the period of anarchy and discontent, its character was ever present. That was why the educational, social and moral developments did not receive major setbacks. Although the governments of the Samanis, Saffaris and Seljuks were not stable, great scholars were bor11 during their reigns and under their jurisdiction and reputed scholars of the arts and sciences left their immortal works behind. The History of Islam Diwanul Aziz The Caliph's court was known as Diwanul Aziz.

Similarly, the office of the prime minister who dominated over all government departments and had his say in all matters and who appeared to virtually hold the reins of power in his hands was also called 'Piwanul Aziz'. All offices and departments were under him. The Prime Minister was supposed to issue orders after consulting with the heads of all the departments concerned. Diwanul Khiraj This may be called finance or tax revenue department. Sometimes it was directly handled by the Prime Minister and sometimes by a separate minister who was subordinate to the Prime Minister. Sometimes the Caliph did not let the Prime Minister have any link with the Finance Minister but had him connected to his own Katib (Secretary).

Sometimes the Finance Minister appointed his deputies in the provinces himself and they were free from subordination by the governor of the province concerned. Generally, the Finance Minister empowered the Governors of the provinces to spend money but not without making them answerable for what they spent. Diwanul Jizya or Diwan Dhamam These offices housed the documents related to the Jizya (tax on nonMuslims for exemption from military duty) and the Dhimmis (non.- Muslims who paid a tax for being exempted from military duty). It was responsible for the collection, fixation and exemption of the Jizya. The chief of the department was regarded as a subordinate to the Finance Minister. He had to carry out the Qadiul Qudat's (Chief Justice's) instructions related to the reduction or exemption of the Jizya.

Diwanul Askar This department maintained the army register of military personnel. It had a direct link either with the Prime Minister or the Caliph. It disbursed salaries to the soldiers, the commander-in-chief was also considered to be an officer of this department. He was concerned with A General Study of Umawi and Abbasi Caliphates this department to the extent that he was responsible for the disbursing of the salaries in his presence. The purchase of horses, mules, and camels, the collection of arms, and tailoring of uniforms were functions of this department. Diwan Shurta The Police officers and their management were under the supervision of these offices.

The head of this department was the Chief of Police. The Mohtasibs also discharged their duties under this department. The salaries of the police of this department were higher than those of the soldiers and they were recruited with great care. Diwan Dhaya This department was concerned with the management of the revenue of the territories of Iraq considered to be the Caliph's feudal property. Its responsibility was to increase the produce of the fields and keep them always ploughed, seeded and green. Diwan Bareed Headquarters of the postal department were in Baghdad.

It had details regarding maps of the territories, lists of the post offices, necessary directions about each stage of the road, instructions for the employees, reports of the services of the employees and workers and records and guidelines for peace and safety of the roads. Diwanun Nafaqat This department maintained the registers concerning the expenses, rewards, daily allowances and gifts of the Caliph's palaces. Diwanut Tauqi The department of the royal seal kept copies of each order issued by, or with the seal of the Caliph. This department, which may also be called the Official Registry department, was under the charge of the Katib (Secretary). The History of Islam Diwanun Nazr Fil-Mazalim The incharge of this department was the Mushriful Ala (Chief Inspector). He used to test the performances of the workers, correct errors in the registers and offices, inspect the offices and deter the workers and officers from wrong doing.

Diwanul Anhar This department undertook the repair, safety of the canals and enhancement of the resources of irrigation. In addition to the farmers, the wealthy and other interested parties concerned with welfare activities were at liberty to dig canals. If the farmers or the inhabitants of a particular region wanted to dig a new canal, the government paid half of its expenditure. In cases of disputes between the two villages over the distribution of water, the government would let the farmers settle their disputes by peaceful means otherwise the department intervened and settled the problem. The benefit that the government received from the new irrigation canals was the increase in the collection of revenue, when production increased, the government received higher payments. Diwanur Rasayel The office of Correspondence's main functions was to prepare the manuscripts of pacts and agreements, sealing them with the official seals after having copied the royal orders, stamping these orders and putting them into envelopes, keeping copies of important judgments, sending copies of the royal mandates to provinces and cities, dispatching public petitions to the departments concerned and proposing the proper administrative policies for the offices.

Dami Adi It could hear the appeals of every court. The Judge of Baghdad, the Chief Justice, ministers, legal experts and scholars of the city would gather and hear the major cases at the Darfil Adi (Hall of Justice). The Caliph would also participate as President. If the Caliph himself was involved in the case, the Prime Minister or the Chief Justice would A General Study of Umawi and Abbasi Caliphates preside over it. If the Governors were charged with rebellion or the Generals were accused of hatching a conspiracy they were given a chance to clarify their position. In this court, only those persons who could present written proof of his good conduct and standing duly signed by a judge and a Mohtasib (local inspectors of the market place) could stand witness.

People of great status feared giving evidence at this court in case their conduct was questioned and objected to and their evidence rejected. Darul Qada The Judge's Court was a unique form of the Islamic justice system. Every Judge of the city could be a judge and magistrate in the Judge's Court. If anyone filed a case against the governor or administrator of the city, he had to appear in this court as an ordinary citizen and give proof. In order to handle the cases of non-Muslims, judges from among them were appointed. In the court of a non-Muslim judge, all civil and criminal cases would be heard and judgments delivered.

In the case where one party was a non-Muslim the parties could by mutual consent take their case to whatever court they liked but an appeal in such cases would be heard by the Judge's Court. Even the non-Muslims in general liked to have their disputes settled at the Judge's court. General Conditions of the Government The government did not impose itself in the life-style and internal relations of the common people. The internal management of the cities and villages were in the hands of the citizens. They chalked out the plans of their safety quite freely. If they resented an administrator, they sent an application to the Caliph for his transfer and the Caliph generally granted it.

No administrator was appointed without the consent of the citizens concerned. The inhabitants of a city were themselves a military force. At times, an army would surround the administrator of a city, he would face his enemies with the help of government forces but the citizens could compromise with the besieging enemy and the administrator would have to leave the city. The History ofislam The official in general dared not deprive the citizens of their rights. Even an ordinary man could have access to high officials including the Caliph and say (earlessly whatever he wanted to say. The caliphs tried their utmost to endear themselves and prove themselves beneficial to their people.

The Abbasid caliphs honored and patronized the arts and sciences. Traveling Facilities The Abbasid caliphs made careful arrangements for the safe passage of all travelers on the roads of Iraq, Hijaz, lran, Khorasan, Mosul, and Syria. Groups of soldiers were assigned for the purpose of safety of the roads and outposts were set up at appropriate distances. Royal horses, camels and other means of traveling were available at every stage. A rest house was kept reserved for travelers at every stage of the toad. Even the public could ride on the royal horses belonging to the postal department.

Sometimes if the roads became dangerous due to robbers or rebels, royal forces would accompany a band of traders or other travelers. Similarly, for the sake of protection and safety an army was put under the charge of the Amirul Hajj (leader of the Pilgrimage), which went with the caravans of the pilgrims. Trading Facilities Every city had a committee of merchants and it was not compulsory for government officials to be part of the committee. The merchants themselves fixed the rates of commodities. Taxes were nominal on commodities. In this respect, the merchants did not have any grievance.

They were given more respect than even government officials. They were welcome to pay visits to the Caliph's court. The city officials always tried to keep the merchants who brought commodities from abroad satisfied and pleased. They treated the merchants who brought commodities from outside as those who had made a public service. In case the goods were not sold, the official or the Sultan or the Caliph would buy it even if it was not needed at the time because they did not like to send the merchant away frustrated. If a caravan of merchants was looted in the jurisdiction of a particular administrator or governor, he was considered to be extremely careless A General Study of Umawi and Abbasi Caliphates and worthless.

The noblemen of the city used to invite and entertain the merchants and treat them as honored guests. If a merchant came from a foreign country, the Caliph himself would invite him to hear the stories of his journeys and would see him off with gifts and rewards. This attitude gave great incentives and encouragement to trade and so it flourished considerable. That was why during the reign of the Abbasid caliphs all kinds of trade and industry fully developed and each city came to acquire popularity for a particular industry. In this way, the products of one place began to be exported to another. The Arabs had been the traders since ancient times.

However, during the period of the Abbasid caliphs, the Iranians also developed an interest in trade. It developed to such an extent that the Muslim traders began to visit the coasts of the northern seas and the northern and southern parts of Africa, anthropologists have discovered Muslim artifacts manufactured in Baghdad during the period of the Abbasid caliphs in Sweden and Madagascar. Some caliphs for instance Wathiq Billah, exempted foreign merchants from paying taxes and he levied no taxes on imports. Government Tax Collectors Instead of collecting money on cultivated or agricultural produce, share distribution was used. Forty percent of the produce was given to the government tax collector while sixty percent was left with the farmer. If the farmer had to work using irrigation, seventy five percent of the produce was left for him and twenty five percent was the government tax.

On some agricultural products, only twenty percent was collected as tax and eighty percent was left to the farmer. On grape and date orchards, the tax was levied in cash on the basis of share distribution basis. In some provinces like Bahrain, Iraq and Jazirah, there were farmers on whose lands tax was fixed by agreement at the time of victory during the period of the first Caliphs. That was considered a permanent settlement and no enhancements could be made on it. At the time of fixing taxes, most of the lands were left tax-free and the farmers were exempted from paying taxes for the slightest reason. The government took special care to see that the farmers were happy and prosperous so that the population and the The History of Islam prosperity of the territory would not suffer.

A very large area of the territories collected only ten percent of the produce as tax. The Dhimmis who were not recruited in the army and the protection of whose lives rested on the government used to pay a nominal tax to cover military expenditures. Those who willingly joined the arrriy were exempted from the payment of Jizya. There was conscription for the Muslims. The old and children among the Dhimmis were exempted. The Muslims had to pay another tax called Sadaqat (form of charity) while the wealthy among them had to pay the zakah (this is the obligatory tax on wealthy Muslims), which could be called a wealth tax.

Government Expenditures Along the Roman borders, the armies were stationed permanently in cantonments. They used to get higher pay than the other armies. One army always remained in the capital. One part of the army was deputed along the roads for safety and distributed over thousands of outposts. A good number of soldiers were kept in major cities and other central and key places. The police that worked under the command of the 'Mohtasib' and under the authority of the Chief of Police received their salaries from the government treasury.

Th~ major portion of the treasury was spent for the armies. That included the police of the postal department, horses and camels and the workers in the postal department. The militiamen who were requited to participate in the Roman border wars received their food, horses and other essential things from the government. In their absence cash and salaries or foodstuff were given to the members of their families. In times of war, the entire load and provision of the army fell on the government treasury. The chain of battles with the Romans continued and it led the caliphs to found cities and construct forts along the Roman borders.

All the expenses of the armies of the provinces had to be borne by the treasuries of the provinces. However, the expenses of the armies on the Roman borders, security of Baghdad and the rest of Iraq, armed soldiers for postal safety, the Caliph's personal army and the militiamen all were paid by the Caliph's central treasury. Every new Caliph coming to the throne used to reward the army. A General Study of Umawi and Abbasi Caliphates Important workers were awarded feudal estates and their salaries were fixed. In addition to construction of cities and forts, schools, bridges, canals, wells and mosques were continuously being built. Manufacturers, inventors and craftsmen were given bonuses and salaries, which encouraged them considerably and inspired others.

Holistic doctors, medical doctors, poets, scholars and legal experts were amply rewarded and honored. Some Christian and Jewish doctors grew so rich in Baghdad that except the Caliph no one else excelled them in wealth. There were many schools in Baghdad the expenses of which were met with great royal liberality. In the same way there were high quality Halls of Knowledge in other cities. Factories for manufacturing arms, clothing, sugar, medicines and perfumes were set up in big cities and the government patronized them. Owing to the Caliph's special attention mills for making silken and woolen cloths and factories for manufacturing glass utensils made rapid progress.

The Caliph had to have readily available with him in the treasury thousands of royal robes, shawls, woolen clothes, beautiful ceremonial dresses, costly swords, spears, shields and bows in order to reward and honor the extremely brave, the scholars, manufacturers and inventors. He used to purchase valuable and precious objects brought into the country by foreign traders and deposited them into his treasury and distribute them among the people as gifts and rewards. Military Preparedness The total strength of the army varied at different times. There were a number of armies. Each army was made up of ten thousand soldiers. Its chief was called Amir of the army.

He had ten commanders under him and each of them had one thousand soldiers under his command. Each commander had ten deputies and each deputy had one hundred soldiers under him. Similarly, each deputy had ten sergeants and each sergeant had ten soldiers under his command. Sometimes the caliphs brought about some changes in the uniform of the army in accordance with their tastes. For instance, Motasim had lace sewn to the uniform of the Turk army. Sometimes the military uniforms were of costly brocade.

A huge number of camels and mules for carrying equipment accompanied them. The army had spears, swords and shields with The History of Islam them and was called 'Harbiah' (fighting army). The army that carried bows and arrows with it besides swords and shields was known as 'Ramiah' (shooting or throwing army). Each soldier had a helmet, iron armlets, gloves and socks. Every army had a team of engineers, physicians and surgeons. It carried with it stocks of medicine and all the necessary pharmaceuticals and other paraphernalia required for their mobile hospital with means of carrying the injured.

Each army had a cavalry made up of veteran spearmen and archers. When the caliphate grew weaker and Banu Buwayh became dominant, the custom of granting feudal estates to the army chiefs began and they were allowed to collect their salaries from the government collector of revenues who obtained the funds from that particular tract of land. This practice opened the door to the perpetration of atrocities on the farmers. When the Seljuks came into power, they introduced the custom that every administrator and every ruler was considered to be a general and they_ were supposed to be ready with an army in proportion to the collection of revenue from that part of the country. In other words, the army chiefs were made up of independent feudal lords by being the owner of part of the country their duty was to come with a fixed number of soldiers in times of emergency. The government of the whole territory thus came into the hands of the army chiefs and the old administrators and former feudal lords lost their power.

The army had nothing to do with the royal treasury, the army chiefs had the authority to collect their salaries from their lands and property and to reduce ot increase them as they saw fit. With his back to the wall the Caliph with the loss of revenue had to reduce the number of his soldiers leading ultimately and automatically to the seizure of power by the Sultans. When the Seljuks became weaker, the Caliph of Baghdad captured Iraq and directly increased his revenue and introduced again the old practice of separating the army from the administrative and managing functions. Educadona! Developments The Baitul Hikmah (House of Wisdom) had been established in Baghdad in the time of Haroon Rasheed. During Mamoon' s, regime a big department began the work of translating Greek, Hebrew, Sanskrit A General Study of Umawi and Abbasi Caliphates and Persian books.

The Caliph arranged debates and academic discussions and participated in them. The scholars used to meet at the residences of the rulers, ministers and other important persons. Academic issues were hotly debated and listeners' minds would be highly illuminated. Just as a number of scholars were busy writing, compiling and translating books there was and equal number of them copying books. Booksellers were held in great esteem and busied themselves in copying books. They kept a number of copyists and calligraphers engaged in this work.

People undertook journeys to distant lands for academic research and acquisition of knowledge and they proved themselves to be an invaluable asset to tl1eir countrymen and the royal court on their return. Ilmun Nahwa (Arabic grammar) was developed during the period of the Abbasid caliphate and many books were written on this subject. People penned books on travels. Ilmul Ahadith (Science of the traditions of the Prophet~) were compiled and edited. Books on the 'Usool (rules of principles) Ahadith were written. Similarly thousands of books on Ilmul Kalam, Ilmul Fiqah (Islamic Law) and Ilmul Orood' were written.

Not only in Baghdad but also in all the major cities and territories, authors were engaged in scholarly pursuits. Very valuable books on medicine, physics, surgery and anatomy were written and published. Medicine shops were first started during this period. Similarly, the credit of systematizing and compiling the art of written history belongs to the same period. The Abbasids are also credited with very important discoveries in astronomy. Mamoon Rasheed had the distance of one degree measured on the surface of the earth and thereby proved twice that the circumference of the earth was 24 thousands miles.

He had observatories constructed and books written on the art of building. The telescope and the watch were also inventions of the Abbasid period. Remarkable · books on mysticism, morality and theology were authored during this period. Not only were books on mathematics, chemistry, geology, zoology, botany and logic written but also the Muslims established these sciences. To fully do justice to the ~cholastic achievements of Muslims during this period would require a separate voluminous book. In these academic developments, the Umayyah caliphate of Andalusia did not lag behind and was the forerunner of many of the world's modern sciences.

The History of Islam Part Two We have examined until this point in the narrative the life of the Prophet (~) and we have read in detail the conditions and the situations concerning the rightly guided Caliphs. No one after the Prophet (~ ) was permitted by Islamic law to inherit his property based on his relationship with him (Jli:) or become the ruler or Caliph of the government founded by him (~ ), and this decision was taken in keeping with Islamic teachings. Each of the rightly guided Caliphs had sons and those sons were very capable but none of the caliphs wanted to nominate their sons nor did the rule and government become an inheritance in their families. Only afti=r Ali (4,,), his son Hasan ~ was made Caliph by the people of Kufa. After six months, he handed the caliphate and the government over to Amir Mu'awiyah (~ )- What Amir Mu'awiyah (~ ) did was to nominate his son as his successor and instead of on his own accord giving it to a person chosen by the majority of the Muslims, he handed the Islamic government to his descendent as a personal inherited right. Never the less he did not officially say th.at the Islamic government was the property of a single individual family and so he tried to have all the Muslims agree to take the oath for Yazeed.

This act of Amir Mu'awiyah (~) caused the Muslims of that period to struggle hard to remedy it and this brought about the disaster at Karbala. lt was due to these efforts that Abdullah bin Zubair ~ was made Caliph and Amir Mu'awiyah's family was deprived of the Islamic government. Along with Mu'awiyah's act the Jew Abdullah bin Saba's anti Islamic conspiracy proved effective in disturbing the basic system of Islamic rule. First, the inner mistake, which was attributed to Mu'awiyah (~ ) and secondly the external opposition, which was called Saba's conspiracy combined and turned into a great trial or evil disorder by being presented as Islamic. The result was that this Islamic pillar of government was pushed off its foundation and it also became the target for disaster by anti Islamic forces. The Marwani caliphs strengthened the evil practice of succession and nomination of the future ruler and this enabled those incapable of beneficial rule to hold the caliphate. It dealt a fatal blow to the awe and grandeur of Islamic A General Study of Umawi and Abbasi Caliphates rule and in parallel allowed a series of struggles to begin that took advantage of Saba's moves aimed against the Islamic sultanate.

Finally, the Abbasids captured the caliphate from the Umayyah caliphs and it marked the beginning of division in the Islamic government. Before the Abbasids Banu Umayyah ruled over the entire Islamic world with a single center and a single caliphate. However, in the beginning of the reign of the Abbasids in Spain a separate Umayyah government was formed that was out of the jurisdiction of the Abbasid caliphs. Then Morocco, North Africa and other territories established separate Islamic governments. After discussing the caliphate of Banu Umayyah, we have finished discussing the Abbasid caliphate leaving the other governments that were founded separately during the period of the Abbasid caliphate and in the third volume we shall study them. It is appropriate here in order to bring the continuity of events and subjects into perspective to give a short description of these ruling dynasties.

Spain The Muslims conquered Spain and established their government in 93 A.H. and it was a province of the caliphs of Banu Umayyah. Until 138 A.H., like all other provinces Amirs and administrators were appointed by the rulers on behalf of the Banu Umayyah caliphs. When the Abbasids destroyed the Umayyah government and took it over, the tenth Caliph of the Umayyahs Hisham's grandson Abdur Rahman somehow escaped the bloodthirsty swords of the Abbasids and reached Spain and founded his government there in 138 A.H. When the Abbasid army attacked him, he repulsed and defeated them. He made the Spanish city Qurtabah (Cordoba) his capital and began his magnificent rule. This rule continued in his family until 422 A.H.

The pomp and dignity and the power and greatness of these Spanish caliphs threw the entire continent of Europe into deep consternation and their love of knowledge and culture won them international praise and admiration. Their feats and achievements are more interesting and instructive than those of Banu Abbas. In 422 A.H., there began a state of anarchy in Spain and it led to the down fall and end of the grand caliphate of the Umayyah dynasty. After that, Spain was divided into small Muslim states and they made cities like Cordoba, Seville, Granada and Valencia The History of Islam their capitals. After a short time, the Muslim Kingdoms of Africa brought most of Spain under their subjugation. The Christian Kings took advantage of the civil wars raging among the Muslims inciting the Muslims to fight among themselves and when they became extremely weak, the Christian conquerors of Spain subjected them to a repression that no nation had been subjected to or had been inflicted on the face of humanity.

The history of Spain makes the Muslims shed tears of blood. The story of the ruin of the Spanish Muslims has the power of wounding the hearts and minds of the believers. The Sultanate of ldrisid in Morocco In 172 A.H. Morocco became separated from the Abbasid caliphate and an independent government was formed. Though this sultanate was in the neighborhood of Spain, it was opposed to the Spanish caliphate as it was to the Abbasid caliphate. It lasted for about 200 years.

The Idrisi Kings ruled for 100-125 years and then the Obeidis started ruling in North Africa. Finally, it was divided in several parts and after surviving as ordinary rulers and chiefs their rule ended. The Sultanate of Aghlabia in North Africa In 184 A.H., the province of North Africa (Tunis) separated from the Abbasids and the descendents of Ibrahim Aghlabs governed with great pomp and dignity for more than 100 years. In 219 A.H., the sultanate of Aghlab captured the Island of Sicily from the Christians and annexed it to its own territory and continued to rule over it until the end of their dynasty. There were a few very courageous and able rulers in this dynasty. When the Obeidis (Fatimids) revolted, they founded their sultanate on the bases formed by the Aghlabs.

They seized the Idrisi government and made the Aghlab's capital of Qairwan their own capital. Egypt came under their control and then they moved their capital to Egypt. The history of the Aghlab government is move interesting than that of the Idrisi. It met its end in 296 A.H. This dynasty conquered not only Sicily but also Malta and Sarp.inia. They had a powerful naval force and they dominated the Mediterranean Sea.

At times, their fleets attacked and looted the coasts of Greece, Italy and France. A General Study of Umawi and Abbasi Caliphates The Sultanate of Ziyad in Yemen In 203 A.H., Muhammad bin Ziyad who was a descendant from Ziyad bin Abi Sufian, was appointed as the governor of Yemen. His dynasty continued to rule in Yemen until 402 A.H. Muhammad bin Ziyad founded the city of Zubaid and made it his capital. He conquered the province of Tahama adjacent to Yemen and he captured Hadramut also. There were a few very lucky and powerful Kings in this dynasty.

In 288 A.H., the Alawis took a part of his territory and founded the Zaidiyah government. The borders of this sultanate continued to shrink. Though the Zaidiyah sultanate was independent, the names of the Abbasid caliphs were read in the Friday sermons there. Besides Zaidiyah when another independent government was established in a part of Yemen, they removed the names of the Abbasids from their Friday sermons. When the Zaidiyah sultanate grew weak, their slaves and slaves of the slaves began to rule. After that, a number of dynasties ruled in Yemen one after another.

After the Zaidiyah there followed the Yafuriah, Najahiah, Sailhiah, Hamdaniah, Mahdiah, Zoriah, Ayyubiah, Rasooliah and the Tahriah dynasties which ruled independently until 1000 A.H. Some of these dynasties were Shia and some were Sunni. Their histories have nothing remarkable about them. The Sultanate of Tahir Husain in Khorasan Mamoon Rasheed Abbasid appointed Tahir bin Husain as the governor in Khorasan in 205 A.H. After that, this dynasty ruled for 50 years in Khorasan. The Tahir dynasty established Khorasan as a separate entity from Baghdad and from that time on they thought themselves independent from Baghdar rule,but the rulers of the Tahir dynasty regarded themselves as subordinate to the Caliph of Baghdad and read his name in the Friday sermons but the Caliph's court did not interfere in the affairs of Khorasan.

The Saffar Dynasty in Khorasan and Iran In 254 A.H., Yaqub bin Laith Saffar captured Iran and separated it from the Abbasid caliphate. In 259 A.H., he brought under his control The History of Islam Khorasan as well and put an end to the Tahir government. The Saffar dynasty governed for about 40 years and then the Samania government did away with them. Whatever has been stated about the Tahir and Saffar dynasties in the previous pages is sufficient for our purposes and these two dynasties will not be included in the coming volume. The Samania Dynasty in Mawaraunnahr and Khorasan Some things have been said about the Samanis above when the Samani government of Mawaraunnahr took away Khorasan from the Saffaris and Tabristan from the Alawis, its jurisdiction extended from Mawaraunnahr (including the cities of Samarkand and Bukhara) to the gulf of Iran and the Caspian Sea. From that time, Mawaraunnahr was free from the authority of the Abbasid caliphate.

The Samani dynasty ruled for 125 years. Their contribution to the development of arts and sciences, culture and civilization is appreciable. Bukhara and Samarkand became centers of the arts and sciences and these cities were the birthplace of scholars of such repute that the world still remembers them. After about half a century, Khorasan, Iran and Tabristan slipped out of the control of the Samani rulers. The Buyid dynasty established their domination over this region and over threw the Samanis. Turk slaves of this dynasty became dominant and the Buyids downfall started approaching fast.

In 384 A.H., a Turk slave of this dynasty Alptageen captured part of the Samani territory. Between 380 A.H. and 389 A.H., the Turks captured the remainder of the Samani territory and ended the Buyid dynasty. The history of the Samani government is even more interesting because this sultanate helped in the establishment of Alptageen's sultanate and Alptageen's successor was Subaktaggen whose son Mahmood Ghaznavi, remains an interesting and captivating figure for the students of Asian history. The Sultanate of Qaramata in Bahrain In 286 A.H., the provinces of Bahrain were separated from the Abbasid caliphate and Qaramata established his own kingdom there. He made the people's lives a hell through his repressive measures. His tyrannies and misdeeds will be recorded in a separate chapter.

His rule in Bahrain lasted until 364 A.H. after that other dynasties took A General Study of Umawi and Abbasi Caliphates control of Bahrain and a number of independent states began to rule there and in the provinces of that area. The Sultanate of Alawis in Tabristan From 250 A.H. to 316 A.H., Zaidi Alawi ruled in Tabristan. The Samanis annihilated them and yet several rivals kept fighting with one another in the region and they helped in the establishment of the Buyid dynasty, which has been discussed in the previous pages. The Province of Sindh - In 265 A.H., the province of Sindh became independent from the Abbasid caliphate and two independent Muslim kingdoms were established, one having its capital in Multan and the other in Mansoora. The southern part of Sindh formed part of the sultanate of Mansoora while the northern part was ruled over the sultanate of Multan. Small states like Tooran, Qasdar, Kaikanan, Makran, and Mushki were established by Arab chiefs who had recognized the authority of the bigger states and paid taxes to them.

In this way, the whole of Sindh became independent of the Caliph of Baghdad but his name continued to be read in the Friday sermons there. These states began to grow weaker and in 100-125 years time they were extinct. However, the state of Multan survived until Mahmood Ghaznavi invaded India. The Buyid or Buwayhid Dynasty The Buyids or Dailamis reigned in Iran and Iraq from 322 A.H. to 447 A.H., approximately 125 years. Instead of declaring independence from the Caliph's rule, the Buyids dominated the Caliph and captured the province of Iraq and finished the Abbasid caliphate both literally and figuratively. They however, spared the Caliph's name and the caliphate in name.

The blow that was dealt to the dignity and reliability of the Abbasid caliphate by the Buyids has been stated briefly in the previous pages. They imposed themselves on the Caliph and he became their puppet. The Buyids have found mention with the history of the Abbasids and no further details about them are needed in coming pages. The History of Islam The Sultanate of Tuloon in Egypt Ibn Tuloon has bean mentioned previously. Bani Tuloon ruled on Egypt from 254 A.H. to 292 A.H. Though he was independent and the province of Egypt was virtually separated from the Abbasid caliphate in 254 A.H., in the Friday sermon the name of the Caliph of Baghdad continued to be read in Egypt.

Bani Tuloon annexed Syria to their government. Their kingdom in Egypt and Syria claimed to be loyal to the Caliph of Baghdad but they had cut off the court of Baghdad from any involvement in the Egyptian and Syrian governments. The Sultanate of Akhshidiah in Egypt and Syria When the government of Bani Tuloon ended in Egypt and Syria, the Governors of both the provinces began to come from the Caliph's court for sometime and both the provinces appeared to become a part of the Abbasid caliphate again. In 316 A.H., the Caliph of Baghdad, Moqtadir Billah, appointed Muhammad bin Tafaj governor of Ramla. In 318 A.H., he was made the ruler of Damascus followed by Egypt in 323 A.H. Muhammad bin Tafaj belonged to an ancient ruling dynasty of Farghana of Mawaraunnahr.

The chiefs of Farghana were then called Akhshid. Muhammad bin Tafaj captured the Egyptian throne and announced his autonomy in 327 A.H. and chose the title Akhshid. In 330 A.H., he conquered Syria and in 331 A.H. annexed the Hijaz to his Kingdom and founded his dynasty. In so doing, he faced no hardship because the Buyids had made the Caliph's court powerless and ineffective. The fear and awe of the Caliph had left the public's hearts. The Akhshid dynasty ruled over these countries until 356 A.H. when the Fatimids conquered Egypt and later Syria.

The Sultanate of Obeidi (Fatimids) in Egypt, North Africa and Syria In 296 A.H., the Aghlab dynasty ended in North Africa (Tunis) yielding to the Obeidi dynasty. In 356 A.H., the Obeidis took Egypt from a minor of the Akhshid dynasty and made Cairo their capital and constructed the defensive walls of the city. In 381 A.H., the Obeidis captured Aleppo and in a short time, their government A General Study of Umawi and Abbasi Caliphates extended from the Moroccan border to Syria. The Obeidis left Qairwan and made Cairo their capital, the islands in the Mediterranean. Sea and the western districts could no longer be held under their control but their superiority in the eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea was established and the eastern conquests compensated for their western losses. Most of the western territories that they lost went under the Christian's control and they latter took the eastern territories from the Muslims.

The advent of the Obeidis in Egypt benefited the Christians and put the Muslims at loss. The Obeidis also claimed the caliphate and took the oath from those under their occupation and they were called Caliph by their subjects. Thus, three lines of the caliphate became established in the world. The foremost and the longest is that which was established by Abu Bakr Siddiq ~ and ended with the last Caliph of the Ottoman dynasty Sultan Abdul Majeed. The first part is called the rightly guided caliphs, the second the Umayyah dynasty, the third is the Abbasid dynasty, the fourth is the Abbasids of Egypt and the fifth is the Ottoman Empire. We have finished four parts of this long chain.

The fifth part will follow. The second separate line of the caliphate began from the period of Abdul Rahman III in Spain and ended with that dynasty. The majority of Islamic scholars have recognized this line of the caliphate as lawful. They regarded the caliphs of Spain as the caliphs of Islam, that is, obedience to them by the Muslims living in their regions was considered obligatory. The third separate line of the caliphate was started by the Obeidis (Fatimids) and has not been recognized as a true line by the scholars of Islam. They recognize them neither as caliphs nor do they regard them as deserving honor.

They introduced partnership with Allah and evil innovations, desecrated Islamic worship and committed many kinds of misdeeds. The rule of the Obeidis lasted until 567 A.H. Then Sultan Salahuddin Ayyubi ended this dynasty, founded the Ayyubi dynasty and reintroduced the mention of the Abbasid caliphs in the Friday sermons in Egypt. Daulatul Hamdan in Mosul, ]azirah and Syria Abul Hija Abdullah bin Hamdan bin Hamdoon bin Harith bin Luqman bin Asad bin Hazam founded an independent state in the provinces of Mosul in 289 A.H. and for about 100 years Banu Hamdan The History of Islam governed in Jazirah and Syria. They continued the Friday sermon in the name of the Abbasid caliphs in their territories. Prominent rulers among them were Saifuddaulah and Nasiruddaulah who ruled in Syria and Mosul respectively.

They had taken the greater parts of Syria from Banu Akhshid and captured Jazirah too. They fought the Buyids that is, the Dailamis, a number of times and they gave them a good fight. Sometimes they got the better of the Caliph, who in that period of course was the puppet of the Buyids or Dailamis. During their regime, the issue of offensive and defensive responsibility against the Romans had nothing to do with the Caliph's court. Banu Hamdan alone invaded the Romans and retaliated against their attacks. Among these, Saifuddaulah led successful wars against the Romans and received much recognition in this respect.

Finally, only Syria remained under their control and Hamadan' s government went under the control of their slaves who introduced the Obeidis name in the Friday sermon in Syria and ultimately this government met its end in 380 A.H. Banu Aqil bin Kab bin Rabiah bin Amir established his rule in Mosul and captured the province of Jazirah. After that, several Arab chiefs established their kingdoms in small territories in these areas. They lived under the auspices of some bigger power in name only and sometimes they declared their independence until the Seljuks captured Baghdad and dominated all of Iraq and then the Seljuks deputed their own governors or established their own direct rule. The Government of Banu Sulaiman in Makkah The Caliph of Baghdad used to appoint Governors to Makkah. But in 301 A.H., Muhammad bin Sulaiman who descended from Sulaiman bin Dawood bin Hasan Muthanna bin Hasan bin Ali bin Abi Talib founded an independent government (Muharnmad bin Sulaiman should not be confused with Sulaiman bin Dawood's son because between these two Sulaiman's there are probably two or three more).

The State lasted until 430 A.H. During these 125 years, there were many fights and battles. Four or five persons of this dynasty ruled in Makkah. It was a strange sort of rule. During the Hajj season, the caravans from Egypt and Baghdad arrived and quarreled over reading the Friday sermon. They attached no importance to the Governor of Makkah.

If the Amirul Hajj of Baghdad dominated, he A General Study of Umawi and Abbasi Caliphates used to read the names of the Buyids and the Caliph of Baghdad. If the Egyptian Amirul Hajj got the better of the one from Baghdad, he used to read the name of Banu Akhshid in the Friday sermon. When the Obeidis (Fatimids) emerged victorious in Egypt, the Obeidis and the Abbasids would fight over the Friday sermon. When the Qararnata held power, they slew the Hujjaj and looted Makkah and the pilgrims caravans. Sometimes when the Egyptians desecrated the black stone and hurled stones and abuse on it, the Iraqis flew into a rage and started putting them to sword. During the same period, the Qaramata removed the black stone, carried it away to Bahrain and returned it to Makkah only after 20 or more years.

In brief, during the Hajj time no trace of any rule of Banu Sulaiman was found in Makkah. They were Zaidi Shias and so they were naturally inclined to the Obeidis but they surrendered to whoever was more powerful. The State of Hashimites in Makkah After the Banu Sulaiman, Abu Hashim Muhammad bin Hasan bin Muhammad bin Musa bin Abdullah bin Abi Alkaram bin Musa's descendents began to rule in Makkah. They lived as rulers of Makkah like Banu Sulaiman. They started reading the name of the Caliph of Baghdad in the Friday sermon in the beginning of the Seljuk period. When the Seljuk Sultans became weak near their end the Hashirns began to read the names of the Obeidi rulers in the Friday sermon.

When Sultan Salahuddin Ayyubi wiped out the Obeidi (Fatimid) government in 567 A.H., the Hashims of Makkah became extinct as the Hijaz and Yemen came under Salahuddin's control and the Governors of Makkah were appointed by his dynasty. After some time Banu Qatadah established their rule in Makkah followed by Banu Nami and others until the Ottomans conquered the Hijaz and the Ottoman Sultan began to appoint the rulers of Makkah known as the Sharif of Makkah. Then in times that are more recent, Sharif Husain rebelled again.st the Ottomans and did great damage to the Islamic government by turning himself into the focus of hatred and humiliation. of the entire Islamic world. He recognized the so-called Christian. superiority and brought disgrace on the Hashimites. The History of Islam The State of Marwaniya in Dayar Bakr Abu Ali bin Marwan was a Kurd. He founded an independent government in Dayar Bakr, which lasted, in his family over 100 years from 380 A.H. to 489 A.H.

The cities of Amad, Arzan, Miafareqeen and Kaifah were included in this state. They were loyal to the Obeidis of Egypt and the Obeidis made them the rulers of Halab this bringing them on par with the Hamdanis. They showed allegiance to the Buyid dynasty too. An invasion by the Seljuks put and end to them. The Sultanate of Ghaznaviya in Afghanistan It has been stated above that Alptageen had established a separate kingdom by capturing the southern part of the Samani sultanate. Then his son-in-law Subuktageen succeeded him as the ruler.

Mahmood Ghaznavi was his son. This dynasty reigned from 351 A.H. to 552 A.H. During Mahmood Ghaznavi' s regime, the length, breath and power of this sultanate reached its zenith. It extended from the Punjab and Multan in India to the western edge of Khorasan and from the Persian Gulf to the river Jejune. He invaded the territory up to Samarkand and Bukhara, he launched offensives against Kalinjer (Bengal) and Somnath on the other side. When this dynasty was in decline, the Khwarizm Shahs captured Khorasan while Afghanistan and Punjab were conquered by the Ghauri dynasty.

The Ghaznavi dynasty was always loyal to the Caliph of Baghdad. During the regime of Sultan Mahmood Ghaznavi, the Seljuks came out of their ancestral lands of western China and settled in the plains of Bukhara and gradually they spread up to Asia Minor. Mahmood Ghaznavi had conquered the territories up to Mawaraunnahr. Seljuk Dynasty The rule of the Seljuks lasted for about 270 years from 430 A.H. to 700 A.H. Its beginning was·very magnificent but at the end it was divided into many parts. From the beginning, they were divided into many sects.

Their longest hereditary line was the one that included kings of international repute like Alp Arsalan and Malik Shah Seljuk. They are A General Study of Umawi and Abbasi Caliphates called the Seljuk of Iran. A brief account about them has been given above. A detailed account will follow next. Besides them, the Seljuk of Kerman, Seljuk of Iraq, Seljuk of Syria, Seljuk of Rome (modern day Turkey) are also well known. The histories of all these dynasties are not without interest.

After these there followed the sultanates of their slaves and the Atabaks (slave teachers or tutors). They also add richness and grandeur to our Islamic history. The Seljuks appeared on the horizon at a time when the repressions of the Dailamis (Buyids) had humiliated and weakened the caliphate in Baghdad. The Islamic government was torn to pieces and they established separate and independent kingdoms as we have read above. The S~ljuks restored the lost glory of the Abbasid caliphate unseated many small dynasties from power and rule and resuscitated the Caliph's greatness and dignity in a grand and powerful government. The Seljuks power was based on their military and martial prowess, they let the army chiefs run the country's administration and government.

It soon was in disarray and all the Seljuk chiefs vying with each other helped bring ba_ck the past anarchy by capturing provinces and states separately and independently. The Seljuks were new converts but they were the embodiment of sincerity and free from the conspiring and intriguing of the Alawis. They had many opportunities to serve the cause of Islam. They served the cause of religious knowledge and encouraged noblehearted people as much as they could. They held in greatest esteem the Abbasid caliphs simply because they thought they deserved it in view of the old traditions of Islam. They remained quite unaffected by the rivalries of Abbasids, Umayyahs and Alawis.

They neither hated one sect nor did they love the other unjustifiably. They were simple, straightforward and true Muslims. They fought the Christians tooth and nail and established the superiority of the Muslims' swords on the hearts of the Christians and pushed back their on rushing flood with authority. It was due to their rule that the government of the Abbasid caliphs survived until the end. The cause of their downfall was the same that brings down every nation, internal dissensions and bickering. The Seljuks power as has already been stated, was a military one their power was dependent on the army. lts officers were Turk slaves who were brought from the forests of Qaichaq and purchased.

The Seljuk The History of Islam Sultans trusted them most. They never doubted their loyalty. When those slaves grew disciplined and became chiefs, they proved to be extremely brave and faithful. The Seljuk Sultans assigned their slave chiefs as tutors to their young princes and the princes learned manners under their tutelage and that was why they called those slave-tutors Atabak. The word Atabak in Turkish language means an Amir who may be taken as the father's deputy. When the Seljuk Sultans became powerless after years of in fighting, those slaves or Atabaks found opportunities and established their own governments in different territories.

Taftageen, Seljuk Tatash's slave, was appointed tutor to Tatash's minor son Wafaq Seljuk and became the ruler of Tatash's government after Wafaq and began to rule in Damascus. Emaduddin Zangi, Sultan Malik Shah slave's son, founded an Atabak state in Mosul and Aleppo. The Seljuk Sultan of Iraq Masood had a Qaichaqi slave. He established an Atabak sultanate ir Azerbaijan. Sultan Malik Shah had a slave named Anustageen among whose descendents were the kings of Khwarizm Shahia. Similarly, there was an Atabak chief name Salfar who founded an Atabak government in Iran.

In brief, by the sixth century A.H. all the Seljuk countries were captured and ruled over by Seljuk army chiefs. The Atabaks of Syria and Iran Malik Shah's Turk slave was Ak Sanfar who was his Hajib also. He was assigned as the ruler in Syria and Iraq. In 521 A.H., Ak Sanfar's son Emaduddin took over as the Governor of Iraq and the same year he annexed Mosul, Sanfar, Jazirah and Harran to his kingdom. In 522 A.H., he brought into his possession major parts of Syria. Emaduddin waged holy wars against the Romans and endeared himself to the world of Islam.

His son Nuruddin Mahmood succeeded him as the ruler of Syria while his second son Saifuddin took Iraq. Nuruddin Mahmood out did his father in launching holy wars against the Romans and achieved even greater fame. After him, his family was torn into several groups. The Ayyubi dynasty was a branch of the same family as the Emaduddin Zangi dynasty, which continued to rule for 125 years. A General Study of Umawi and Abbasi Caliphates The Atabaks of Arbela (lrbil} Among Emaduddin Zangi's Turk officers was one named Zain Ali Kochak bin Buktageen who served as his deputy in Mosul. In 539 A.H., he annexed Sanjar, Harran, Takrait and lrbil (ancient: Arbela) to his kingdom and made !rbil his capital and established an independent government.

It continued under his family's rule until 630 A.H. After that, it went directly under the control of t]1e Caliph in Baghdad. The Atabaks of Deyar Bakr Artooq bin Aksab Seljuk was an army officer. His son El Ghazi founded his own government in 495 A.H. The government remained with this family in name only until Timur's times. They were loyal to the rulers of Sultan Salahuddin Ayyubi.

The Atabaks of Armenia Qutbuddin Seljuk's slave Salman Qutbi took the city of Khalat from the Marwani kingdom and established his own sultanate in 493 A.H. His descendents continued to rule until 604 A.H. when the Ayyubi sultanate conquered it. The Atabaks of Azerbaijan Sultan Masood's Qaichaqi slave Alizkaz established his own government in Azerbaijan that lasted for a hundred years from 531 A.H. to 632 A.H. The Atabaks of Iran the chief of a group of Turks was named Salfhar. He joined the supporters of Tughral Baig Seljuk. One of his descendents Sanfar bin Maudood captured Iran in 543 A.H.

His family continued to rule in Iran until 686 A.H. A ruler of this dynasty, Atabak Sad, began to pay taxes to Khwarizm Shah. It was after his name that Sheikh Muslehuddin Shirazi chose his title Sadi for his famous book. Atabak Abu Bakr succeeded Atabak Sad. He was loyal to Ektai Khan of the The History of Islam Mongols. It was this Atabak Abu Bakr whom Sadi has referred to in his masterpiece Gulsitan.

The Atabaks of Laristan (near the Arabian Gulf in Iran) The founder of this dynasty was Atabak Tahir who was a chief of the Atabaks of Iran. The year Sanqar bin Maudood captured Iran, Atabak Tahir was sent to conquer Laristan. He captured Laristan and established his rule there in 543 A.H., which lasted until 740 A.H. One of the branches of this dynasty continued to govern in Laristan until the tenth century A.H. The Atabaks of the Khwarizm Shahia Anwastageen was a Turk slave of Bulgatageen Ghaznavi who became Malik Shah's water supplier. Malik Shah appointed him as the ruler of Khwarizm (Khiva).

Then his son Khwarizm Shah succeeded him. He extended his Kingdom up to the bank of the river Jejune and captured Khorasan and Isfahan. Khwarizm Shah's son Aladdin Muhammad conquered Bukhara and Samarkand in 607 A.H. and then extended their territory to include a major part of Afghanistan up to Ghazneen. Then he became a Shia and decided to uproot and wipe out the Abbasid caliphate. He just had begun his plan when Genghis Khan invaded and threw him into a defensive posture. The Mongols pursued him and he continued to evade them until he died on an island in the Caspian Sea in 617 A.H.

He left three sons who continued to evade the Mongols. One of them Jalaluddin Khwarizm fled to India and after living there for two years went back to fight against the Mongols. Ultimately the Mongols destroyed their dynasty in 628 A.H. The Khwarizm Shah's Kingdom began in 470 A.H. and ended in 628 A.H. Their rule was regarded as equal to that of the Seljuks. The State of Ayyubiah An account of the Atabaks of Syria and Iraq has been given above.

One of them Emaduddin Zangi appointed a Kurd chief called Ayyub bin Shadi as governor of the city of Baalbek. Gradually he became an important leader. Ayyub had a younger brother Sherkoh. When Emaduddin died and his son Nuruddin Mahmood Zangi succeeded A General Study of Umawi and Abbasi Caliphates him as king, he made Sherkoh the ruler of Hims and Rahba. When he saw his merits and bravery, he made him the supreme commander of his army. When Nuruddin sent Sherkoh to Egypt, he asked his nephew Salahuddin Ayyubi to accompany him to Egypt.

This has already been stated. Salahuddin founded his sultanate in 564 A.H. and Egypt, Syria and the Hijaz were quickly annexed to it. The kingdom founded by him is known as the Ayyubi Dynasty. This dynasty continued to rule until 648 A.H. but after Salahuddin it became divided. One of its branches at Hama survived until 742 A.H. The Mamluks of Egypt After the Ayyubi Dynasty of Egypt, the country saw the rise of the slave kings in 560 A.H. that has been discussed above.

They also had two branches. They were vanquished in 922 A.H. and were replaced by the Ottomans. While discussing the Seljuk Sultans we have covered a large area of history and have to go back to address several popular and powerful kingdoms, which were, established much earlier for which chronological references need to be given. So let us leave the eastern territories like Khorasan, Iraq and Syria and turn our attention to the west. The Kingdom of the Zeriah of Tunis When the Obeidi (Fa timid) Dynasty shifted its capital from Qairwan to Cairo, the whole of North Africa from Egypt to Morocco was under their jurisdiction at the time. Their naval forces in the Mediterranean Sea were regarded as superior to all but after the shifting of the capital to Cairo, its power did not last long over the western territories.

The kingdom of the Zeriah was established in Tunis and it ruled from 362 A.H. to 543 A.H. The Samadias of Algeria The dynasty of Samadia established their rule in Algeria and they governed from 398 A.H. to 547 A.H. Due to the Obeidi's shifting their capital the Berber tribes in Morocco became independent. They were destroyed by the dynasty of the Mowahids. The History of Islam The Kingdom of the Murabitun During the period of the caliphate of Banu Umayyah, some tribes of Yemen came and settled in the lands of the Berbers like Tunis, Algeria and Morocco. By virtue of their teachings, Preachings and the ideal Islamic way of life they converted the Berbers to Islam.

One of the tribes that lived in Morocco managed to convert the Berbers that were still unconverted through the sermons of Faqih Abdullah bin Yaseen of the Maltunah tribe in 448 A.H. They wanted to make him their leader but he refused and pointed towards a man named Abu Bakr. The new Muslim Berbers chose Abu Bakr as their leader and began to address him as Amirul Muslimeen. This assemblage attracted the neighboring tribes. There was no stable government in Morocco at the time. There were various tribal territories but none were dominant.

During this anarchy, Abu Bakr's power began to rise in stage_s. He called his men Murabitun the defending army of the Islamic border. Abu Bakr inspired them to serve Islam and motivated them to be very brave. He then moved forward towards eastern Morocco and conquered Sijilmassa and made his cousin Yusuf bin Tashfain its governor. Yusuf bin Tashfain was very religions minded, brave and wise. When Abu Bakr died in 453 A.H., Yusuf bin Tashfain became their leader.

He founded the city of Morrocco and made it his capital. In 472 A.H., the Christians beleaguered the Muslim leaders of Spain by their attacks and the Muslims of Spain sought help from him. He went to Spain and broke the backbone of the Christians by defeating them in a major battle. He left an army of 3,000 Murabitun in Spain for its defense and returned to Morocco. After four years, the Christians again attacked the Muslims and they begged Yusuf to help them again. He defeated the Christians and annexed the Islamic part of Spain to his government.

In short, Spain, Morocco, Tunis, Algeria and Tripoli were included in the Kingdom of the Murabitun. This dynasty paid very little attention to naval power. Their rule lasted until 551 A.H. By virtue of their valiant actions, they rendered the Christians quite powerless and helpless for a century. A General Study of Umawi and Abbasi Caliphates The Kingdom of the Mowahids Abu Abdullah Muhammad bin Tumart was from the Berber tribe Masmuda, they inhabited Sous Mountain (part of the High Atlas range in southern Morocco), he was known for his profound knowledge of the Traditions of the Prophet * ' Islamic law, the Arabic language and literature and he had deep interest in the propagation of Islam calling to the good and forbidding evil. He made no discrimination between the rich and the poor in matters of moral instruction and truthfulness.

His austerity made him content with simple dress and food. There was a group loyal to him and called him the Mahdi. He enjoyed royal privileges among his followers. Before his death in 522 A.H., he handed the leadership of his group called Mowahhadin to his friend Abdul Momin. Abdul Momin rebelled against the Murabitun and began to conquer territory. Ultimately within the span of two years, he took most of the territory of the Murabitun, caused their downfall and sent an army to Spain.

After conquering Spain and Morocco, he called himself Amir al Muminin. Then in 547 A.H., he conquered Algeria and destroyed the Samadia dynasty. After the conquest of Tripoli, his Kingdom extended from the Egyptian border to the Atlantic Ocean including Spain. In 632 A.H., the army of the Mowahids received a great setback at the hands of the Christians and they failed to maintain their rule in Spain. However, the leaders of Granada continued to fight the Christians. After the loss of Spain, the dynasty of the Mowahids showed signs of weakness and decline.

Sultan Salahuddin Ayyubi took Tripoli from them then followed a declaration of independence by the dynasty of the Hafsids who had ruled as the Mowahids deputies in Tunis and soon after that Algeria also followed suit. A number of leaders vied for power in Morocco leading ultimately to the end of this dynasty in 667 A.H. Its place was taken over by the Marinid Dynasty in Morocco. Haf sid Dynasty in Tunis The Mowahids had deputized in Tunis a man named Hafs as the ruler on their behalf. His family continued to inherit this post for generations. Finally, it declared its independence in 625 A.H.

It ruled honorably for The History of Islam over three hundred years in Tunis. In 941 A.H., the Ottoman Admiral Khairuddin (Barbarossa) conquered Tunis and annexed it to the Ottoman Empire. This was the end of the Hafsids rule. This Kingdom of Zeyaniah of Algeria The man who was appointed as Governor by the Mowahids in the province of Algeria, declared his independence in imitation of the Hafsid Dynasty in 633 A.H. Their capital was Tlemcen. Their rule lasted until 796 A.H. when the Moroccan Marinid Dynasty captured their country.

The Marinid Dynasty of Morocco The Marinid Dynasty ruled over the mountainous regions of Morocco from 591 A.H. In 667 A.H., they captured the Mowahid's territory and established their rule over all of Morocco. In 796 A.H., this dynasty was ruined by one of its own branches and in its place two small rival groups"of Muslims founded their rule. In this chapter, a few references to some of the eastern territories are yet to be given, for instance: The lsmaili Assassins Imam Jafar Sadiq's son Musa Kazim is considered by all the ten Imams of the Shia sect to be his father's successor and lmam. However, Imam Musa Kazim had a brother Imam Ismail. Those who regard his brother Ismail as Imam are known as lsmailia Shias.

The Obeidi (Fatimid) Dynasty was the greatest government of the Ismaili Shias. The Ismailis have always taken recourse to secret plotting and conspiracies in order to achieve their ends. The government of the Obeidis had already set up a secret intelligence department for the sake of propagating their beliefs and thoughts and it was through their missionaries that their message was sent not only to the territories occupied by them but also to other foreign lands. These missionaries lived and spread throughout all the Islamic countries as preachers, spiritual ascetics, traders, and many other guises and A General Study of Umawi and Abbasi Caliphates educated the masses about the lsmaili beliefs. Their blasphemous teachings were abominable and extremely dangerous. They held that the Quran was impracticable that Ismail bin Jafar Sadiq was a prophet.

According to them, there were seven Imams. They took the founder of the Obeidi Dynasty to be the seventh Imam and believed that obedience of the Obeidi caliphs to be the source of salvation and more. The efforts of these missionaries did much to benefit and popularize the Obeidi government. Hasan bin Sabah was an inhabitant of Rayy. His lineage has been disputed. Some say he was an Arab by race and that his ancestors had come from Yemen.

Some suggest that he was a magian. Regardless, his father and his relatives believed in the Shia way. Hasan bin Sabah was educated at Nishapur. He was the classmate of Omar Khayyam and Nizamul Mulk Toosi, the Prime Minister of Alp Arsalan and Malik Shah. He was an extremely intelligent and self respecting man. He reached Egypt during Mustansir Obeidi's regime.

He was accorded a great reception there. He lived as a royal guest and companion of Mustansir for over a year in Egypt. After having full acquaintance with the Ismaili faith he took the oath for Mustansir and proved to be a first rate missionary for the Obeidi government. When he parted with Mustansir as a missionary, he said to him. "Whom should I follow after you? Who will be my Imam?" Mustansir said, "My son Nazar will be your Imam after me." That is why the group founded by Hasan bin Sabah is also called Nazaria.

After his return from Egypt, he lived for sometime in various cities of Iraq and Iran and began to convert the people to his beliefs. Due to the efforts of the Ismaili missionaries, many of the Shias and nonShias had already embraced the Ismaili faith. So, Hasan bin Sabah was able to gather many supporters very quickly. Mahdi Alawi was the governor of the province of Isfahan and Qahistan on behalf of Malik Shah. Hasan bin Sabah fraudulently purchased the Qalaa alMaut (Fort of Death) from Mahdi Alawi in order to construct his prayer house. He fortified it in all respects.

He collected his devotees endeared himself to the illiterate and warring tribes of the neighboring regions, founded his kingdom and came to be known as Sheikhul Jabal. He invented some strange faiths and practices and The History of Islam inculcated them into the people's minds. He prepared a group of dedicated fighters who wrought wonders. He remained in his Maut Fort and had great Kings, ministers and scholars murdered by his fighters . He made his famous missionary Kaiyya Buzarg Ummeed his heir-apparent and successor whose descendents continued lo rule for several generations. Finally, Hulegu Khan exterminated this group in 655 A.H.

The government founded by Hasan bin Sabah lasted in Qahistan for about 175 years from 483 A.H. to 655 A.H. This Ismaili government had established its superiority all over the world and great emperors feared these warrior assassins for they always attacked their adversaries suddenly and by deceit and when they found thei r victim alone. The Crusades against Syria The European Christians began attacking the Muslims in 490 A.H. The Christian missionaries had enthused and instigated their people against the European Muslims and called for the liberation of Syria from Muslim occupation. They regarded this as an act of great religions service and a source of salvation. The chain of these attacks continued for over 300 years.

All the Christian kings of Europe geared up to march to Syria along with the Christian invaders and to use their united power. All these invasions form an interesting chapter of the history of Islam and they will be narrated together. The part of these crusades dealing with Sultan Salahuddin Ayyubi's confrontations with the Christians is extremely important and interesting. The Mongol Kingdom of Asia In the beginning of the seventh century A.H., the Mongols or Tartars from the northern mountains of China and under Genghis Khan's command moved towards the west and made the countries of Turkistan, Mawaraunnahr, Khorasan, Azerbaijan, Isfahan, Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Syria, Asia Minor, Russia and Austria the target of their looting, killing and plundering. They ruined hundreds of kingdoms and put to death dynasties. In the middle of the seventh century in 656 A.H.

Hulegu Khan looted Baghdad and killed its last Abbasid Caliph Motasim Billah, which has already been mentioned. Following A General Study of Unwwi and Abbasi Caliphates Genghis Khan's death in 624 A.H., the Mongol empire was divided into several parts. A part of Genghis Khan's descendents ruled over China. It established its rule in Turkistan and Mawaraunnahr. Another part established its Kingdom in Khorasan and Iran yet another part came to rule over the area of the Caspian Sea. The Mongol empire, which was established by Hulegu Khan in Iran and Khorasan, deserves our special attention. [n a very short time, most of the Mongol Empire turned into Islamic territories, that is, the Mongols embraced Islam and became the servants of Islam.

After 175 or 200 years, the Mongol Empire in Asia began to decline and ultimately it became extinct. In its place were formed many small states in Iran, Khorasan, Iraq and Mawaraunnahr. In this state of decline of the Mongol powers in 800 A.H. a chief called Timur (Tamerlane) appeared. By virtue of his victories, he created an uproar all over the Asian continent and repeated the history of Genghis Khan's conquests. Timur was a Muslim but he also used killing and plundering as part of his warfare. They were far more civilized and disciplined compared to Genghis Khan.

Timur's descendents succeeded in becoming rulers of all the same territories in which Genghis Khan's descendents had ruled. And just as Genghis Khan's descendents saw their downfall, similarly and with the same rate Timur's descend en ts met their end. The Mongols of Timur ruled for approximately the same period of time as the Mongols of Genghis Khan. When Timur's dynasty ended i.n Iran and Turkistan a man named Babar was born from among Timur's descendents. He founded a very powerful empire in India and Afghanistan, which lasted for a significant period of time. The Ottoman Empire of Turkey A reference to the Oguz Turks has already been given above.

The Seljuks had pushed most of the tribes of the Oguz Turks back to the provinces of Armenia and the coast of the Caspian Sea. Among them was one, which has the credit of founding the Ottoman Empire. When the Seljuk Sultan's rule was over and the Mongols began to create havoc, there were 10 to 12 small states in that part of Asia Minor, The History of Islam which were under Muslim occupation. Seljuk princes or the Seljuk's slaves governed those states. One of these states located near the border of Armenia, was under the control of Sulaiman Khan, the chief of a tribe of the Oguz Turks. When the Mongols invaded Alauddin Kaiqbad Seljuk's state, Sulaiman and his son Artughril accompanied by their native Turks helped Alauddin Kaiqbad.

Their attack was perfectly timed and that forced the Mongols to retreat and flee. Alauddin Kaiqbad honored Sulaiman with a royal robe and made him the commander in chief of his army and awarded a large feudal estate to his son Artughril near the city of Ankara. Alauddin Kaiqbad's capital was the city of Konya at the time. Artughril's feudal estate was located at the border of the Roman emperor's territory. After his father's death, Artughril extended the frontiers of his territory. He secured some territory from the sultan of Konya as a reward and some he took from the Christians.

In this way, he came to establish a goodsized state. The Mongols did not disturb these small rulers in Asia ~-.- Minor and left them alone. In 641 A.H., gheyathuddin Kaikhusru the ' Successor Alauddin Kaiqbad of had to pay tax to the Mongols. In 657 A.H., Artughril died and he was succeeded by his son Uthman (Turkish Usman) at the age of thirty. The Sultan of Konya, Gheyathuddin Kaikhusro, married his daughter to Usman and appointed him the commander in chief of his army too. When Gheyathuddin Kaikhusro was killed in 699 A.H., all the Seljuk Turks put Usman on the throne of Konya and so besides his own state, the territory of Konya came under his control also.

He called himself Sultan. This is the sultan after whose name the Ottoman Empire is known. The Ottoman Sultans were soon able to capture Asia-Minor and drive out the Romans. In 663 A.H., the Ottoman sultans conquered Adrianople and made it their capital and established an Islamic government in southeast Europe by capturing the province of Trabzon. The Roman emperor made peace with him and this saved the rest of his empire from the Ottoman powers. Then the Ottoman's started giving the Christians one defeat after another and continued to extend their frontiers.

Finally, in 792 A.H., the Christian kings of Austria, Bulgaria, Bosnia and Hungary jointly launched a very big offensive against the Ottomans. Sultan Murad with a small army A General Study of Umawi and Abbasi Caliphates confronted this huge Christian army at Kosovo and' gave them a crushing defeat that shook and shocked the whole of Europe. In 799 A.H. the whole of Europe including the French and German armies stood up to root out the Ottoman Empire. The confrontation with Sultan Bayazid, Sultan Murad's son, took place at Nicopolis. Sultan Bayazid, known as Bayazid Yaldram, scored an important victory over the united European forces. Over 20 Christian rulers and dignitaries were brought as captives to the court of Bayazid, who were either kings or princes.

This defeat sent a wave of fear all over Christendom. The vanquished Christian kings went back to their countries and made extensive publicity for the formation of a crusade. Then these Christians with even more religious enthusiasm and fervor collected and prepared to fight a decisive war with Bayazid Yaldram. Bayazid Yaldram defeated them in this battle also and was thus able to force the whole of Europe to obey him. At that time, the Roman emperor was in terror. He did not lag behind in sending reinforcements to the Christian crusaders secretly.

So, Bayazid Yaldram decided to punish the Roman emperor and finish Christian rule from the Balkan Peninsula and then finish the Christians forever by conquering the entire European continent. He was still thinking of attacking when news came from the Asian continent that Timur with a huge army had invaded Bayazid Yaldram's Asian territories. He was forced to turn to Asia Minor and face Timur. In 814 A.H., the battle took place at Ankara, which resulted in a victory for Timar and Bayazid Yaldram's capture thus the European continent escaped from being over run by the Muslims. It then appeared as if the Ottoman Empire was going to end but after a few years, it was restored to the power and glory seen during Bayazid Yaldram's regime. Within 50 years, Muhammad II conquered Constantinople and put an end to Christian rule in the Balkan Peninsula.

Then Sultan Salim gave a crushing defeat to the Iranians, conquered Egypt, Iraq, and Arabia and established the Islamic calipf1ate in 922 A.H. by finishing the Abbasid caliphate and introduced the chain of Islamic caliphate into the Ottoman dynasty as has been mentioned above. The history of this dynasty is highly interesting as well as instructive for the Muslims. The History of Islam The Turks of Kashghar The Turk tribes inhabiting the eastern part of Farghana, which had converted to Islam, established independent kingdoms that lasted from 320 A.H. to 560 A.H. One of their rulers called Elak Khan ruled in Turkistan. His capital city was Kashghar. He belonged to the Oguz Turks and the Ottoman Turks were their countrymen.

When the Seljuk Turks established their kingdom, these tribes went to Armenia and Azerbaijan The Seljuk Turks also were originally from the same nation. These wandering tribes established their kingdoms around the Caspian Sea and those, which were pushed to the east, founded their governments in Turkistan with their capital in Kashghar. The Kings of India The Indian state of Sindh was annexed to the Islamic caliphate in the first century A.H. The Governors of Sindh continued to be appointed by the Caliph's court many years. When the Abbasid caliphate began to weaken there sprang up several independent Islamic states. Slowly and gradually, the areas of those Islamic states began shrinking.

One of these states in Sindh existed until the invasion of Mahmood Ghaznavi. He attacked Punjab and Multan and annexed them to his Islamic government. And when the Ghauris succeeded the Ghaznavis, they conquered the whole of nort_hern India and established a powerful Islamic state. The first M,uslim king who came to the throne of India was Qutbuddin Ebak who was a slave of Shababuddin Ghauri. The Khilji dynasty followed the slave dynasty and then came the Tughlaqs. The Tughlaq dynasty was followed by Khizr Khan's dynasty.

Then the Lodhis became the rulers followed by the Moghals. But Sher Shah expelled them and founded his own Kingdom. The Moghals recaptured India from the Sher Shah dynasty and established their own empire. Then the English entered India. The Muslim dynasty referred to above was established in Delhi and Agra. Other contemporary Muslim Kings ruled in different provinces of India for example the Bahmani dynasty, Kings of Gujrat, Kings of Jonepur, the Kings of Bengal and the Kings of Malwa.

The account of these with details could be seen in history of India. A General Study of Umawi and Abbasi Caliphates The Sultanate of Jalairiah of Iraq When the Mongol Empire collapsed, the Mongol chiefs established their separate kingdoms in various places including the Jalair dynasty, which ruled in Iraq from 736 A.H. to 814 A.H. Their capital was Baghdad. The founder of this ruling dynasty was Sheikh Hasan Buzurg Jalair. His son Owais succeeded him as the ruler in 757 A.H. after his death. He took Azerbaijan and Tabriz from the Turkmen in 759 A.H. and included Mosul and Deyar Bakr into his Kingdom.

When he died in 784 A.H., Kurdistan was given to his son Bayazid and Iraq and Azerbaijan went under the control of his next son Sultan Ahmad Jalair. In 796 A.H., Timur conquered Jalair's entire territory and Ahmad Jalair fled to Egypt. He lived there as a refugee with the Mamluks for several years and when Timur returned to Samarkand, Ahmad Jalair came back and recaptured his old territory. In 813 A.H., Yusuf Turkmen killed Ahmad Jalair in the battle. His nephew Shah Wald came to the throne of Baghdad. At last, in 814 A.H., this dynasty was completely destroyed by the Kara Koylunlu Turkmen.

The Kingdom of Mozaffar There was a great leader Mozaffar Khorasani at the court of the Moghal Kings. In 713 A.H., the Moghal King Abu Sayeed made his son Mobarzuddin the Governor of Iran. In 715 A.H., Kerman was also annexed to Iran. Thus after bringing Iran and Kerman under his control he declared his independence. This dynasty continued to rule until 759 A.H. The renowned poet Hafiz Shirazi enjoyed an important position at the court of King Shuja of this dynasty.

The Kara Koylunlu Turkmen · of Azerbaijan This dynasty like that of the Jalair had the chieftainship of the Mongol armies. This dynasty established its rule in the southern lands of Azerbaijan and continued to rule from 780 A.H. to 874 A.H. From this tribe, Yusuf Turkmen was very famous. Ak Koylunlu Turkmen took The History of Islam their power away from them. Kara Koylunlu means' black sheep'. They had the picture of a black sheep on their flags so they were called Kara Koylunlu.

Similarly, Ak Koylunlu means a white sheep and they had the picture of a white sheep on their flags and so they were known as Ak Koylunlu. The Ak Koylunlu Dynasty The Ak Koylunlu Turkmen established their state in the vicinity of Deyar Bakr in 780 A.H. They expelled the Kara Koylunlu Turkmen from Azerbaijan in 784 A.H. and established their rule over all of Azerbaijan and Deyar Bakr. But in 907 A.H., Shah Ismail Safwi ended their rule and captured all their territories. The Kingdom of Safwi When Timur was victorious in Ankara in 814 A.H., his army captured many Turks. Later on, he took these captives to Sheikh Saifuddin Ardbeli.

The Sheikh claimed to have descended from Iman Musa Kazim but he was a Sunni by faith. Once when Timur expressed his readiness to do anything for him in exchange for some service the Sheikh asked him to release all the Turk captives. He obeyed and released all of them. After freeing them, he took the oath for the Sheikh and began to live with him. Timur left Ardbil but the Sheikh found himself surrounded by a huge crowd of dedicated servants who showed their loyalty to the Sheikh's descendents for generation~ until they made one of his descendents Ismail Safwi their King. Ismail Safwi was a Shia by faith.

In 903 A.H., he conquered a few cities in Iran and then in stages he succeeded in bringing under his control the entire country. In 920 A.H., Sultan Salim I gave him a shocking defeat at the battle of Chaldiran, a place 20 miles away from Tabriz. He annexed some western provinces of the Safwi government and then turned to Syi:ia and Egypt. Ismail Safwi Jived for 10 years more after this defeat and his descendents continued to rule in Iran until Nadir Shah Irani exterminated this dynasty in 1148 A.H. and established his own rule. Then Iran and Afghanistan. went under the rule of the Pathans. Then Iran went under the rule of the Qajar Dynasty.

A General Study of Umawi and Abbasi Caliphates A Bird's-eye View The perusal of the above-mentioned list of ruling dynasties and Islamic governments marks the end of this second volume. This should enable the readers to form a picture of the Islamic dynasties and states and they would be able to understand where each dynasty ruled and when they ruled. After this brief summary, one can easily form an idea of the detailed conditions and the lifespan of these dynasties up to the end of the Abbasid caliphate. This volume should help the readers in understanding these dynasties, which will be covered in the following third volume. THE END [Second VOLUME] )~~:.::1;.·-.r--./ "'-~---~ .... ('rt'• ~ · ~,1o1 ,fi.,,~B . • /.../ ·, ,-·",., :t, i ~ q ' ) ' • 'J e.,, S on-en c,.,,ll"k.~ ,r-')I{ A.

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