4. Descriptions of rewards and punishments to motivate

humans towards good behaviour and to keep them away from evil deeds 5. Repetition of important concepts and principles. Classical and operant conditioning According to secular behaviourist theory, which focuses on behaviour and environmental influences, learning occurs by two main processes: classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning involves the learning of associations between two stimuli: a neutral stimulus will come to elicit a response due to pairing with an unconditioned (natural) stimulus. For example, if a mother rings a dinner bell to call the children for lunch, they may initially not have any clue about the meaning of the bell and may hesitate; over time, as the bell is paired with food, they will run immediately for the feast.

Operant conditioning is a type of learning that occurs due to consequences that follow behaviour. Specifically, behaviour is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer (something desirable), or diminished if followed by a punisher (something undesirable). Giving a child candy for cleaning his room would be an example of reinforcement, while spanking the same child for breaking a vase would be punishment. In general, these principles are helpful in understanding certain types of behaviours as well as their environmental influences. However, they are limited due to their inability to explain all types of learning and behavioural phenomena.

Human behaviour is too complex to be reduced to mere environmental factors. They also ignore the important role of cognition, volition and choice. One of the consequences of following their line of thinking is to take away responsibility from the individual. This is contrary to the Islamic conceptualization, in which free will and accountability are primary features. Spiritual modelling Learning may also occur through modelling.

Modelling, or observational learning, is the process of observing and imitating a specific behaviour in another individual. Scientists have actually discovered mirror neurons in the frontal lobe area of the brain that 2 provide a neural basis for this type of learning. Obviously, models are most effective when their words and actions are consistent. Albert Bandura, a social learning theorist, has written extensively on the concept of modelling in psychology. He stated that: The power of example to activate and channel behavior has been abundantly documented...

One can get people to behave altruistically, to volunteer their services, to delay or to seek gratification, to show affection, to behave punitively, to prefer certain foods and apparel, to converse on particular topics, to be inquisitive or passive, to think innovatively or conventionally, and to engage in almost any course or action by having such 3 conduct exemplified. 2 Ibid., p. 341. 3 Bandura, A., 1986, Social Foundations of Thought and Action, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, p. 206. Spiritual modelling is a recent development in the area of observational learning. In spiritual modelling, it is understood that humans may grow spiritually by imitating the life or conduct of a spiritual exemplar, either someone of the past (a prophet) or the present (a religious family or community member).4 A key to this phenomenon is observational spiritual learning, in which the individual learns spiritually relevant skills or behaviours through observing others.5 | The Prophet Muhammad ( ) provides the ideal spiritual model for achieving inner serenity and well-being through the practices prescribed in Islam, as well as an overall philosophy and approach to | life. Prophet Muhammad ( ) was given the status of a final and universal role model for Muslims until the end of time. His example is one of exceptional morality, righteous behaviour and character, and outstanding skills, all of which are characteristics that reflect his position as a Prophet.6 | The Holy Qur'an literally refers to Prophet Muhammad ( ) as a role model: {There has certainly been for you in the Messenger of Allah an excellent pattern for anyone whose hope is in Allah and the Last Day and [who] remembers Allah often.} (Qur'an 33: 21) The Arabic word translated here as `pattern' means an example or model that should be obeyed and followed.

A person who follows another imitates their behaviour, attitude and style. This verse shows the importance of Prophet Muhammad's Sunnah (way or path) in the lives of Muslims, who practice his way in almost every aspect of their life. 4 Oman, D., & Thoreson, C.E., 2003, Spiritual modeling: A key to spiritual and religious growth?, The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 13 (3), p. 150. 5 Ibid. 6 al-Mubarakpuri, S., 1996, The Sealed Nectar: Biography of the Noble= Following the Prophet's Sunnah is a form of obedience to Allah. H Allah ( ) mentions: {He who obeys the Messenger has obeyed Allah, but those who turn away Ð We have not sent you over them as a guardian.} (Qur'an 4: 80) Any knowledge that came from the Messenger was inspired by Allah H ( ), and several verses in the Qur'an order the Muslims to follow and obey the Prophet ( ): | {O you who have believed, obey Allah and His Messenger, and do not turn away from him while you hear [his order].} (Qur'an 8: 20) {...And whatever the Messenger has given you Ð take; and what he has forbidden you Ð refrain from it...} (Qur'an 59: 7) {And obey Allah and the Messenger, that you may obtain mercy.} (Qur'an 3: 132) {Say: Obey Allah and obey the Messenger. But if you turn away Ð then upon him is only that [duty] with which he has been charged, and upon you is that with which you have been charged. And if you obey him, you will be [rightly] guided.

And there is not upon the Messenger except the [responsibility for] clear notification.} (Qur'an 24: 54) These last two verses indicate that the person who obeys the | Prophet ( ) will be upon the correct guidance and will receive mercy from Allah ( ). H | It is an obligation to follow the Sunnah of the Prophet ( ) to the best of one's ability. During his farewell pilgrimage, the Prophet ( ) | said: «I have left among you two matters that, if you adhere to them, you will never be misguided: the Book of Allah and the Sunnah of His Prophet.» (a sound hadith recorded by MaÃlik, al-H.aÃkim and alBayh.aqi) =Prophet, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Dar-us-Salam Publications, pp. 496-503. | The Prophet ( ) also said: «The Children of Israel divided into seventy-two religious sects. My nation will divide into seventy-three sects, and all of them will be in the fire except one. They said: And who is that one, O Messenger of Allah?

He replied: (The one following) what I and my Companions are upon.» (a reliable hadith recorded by at-Tirmidhi) | The Sunnah of the Prophet ( ) is reported through the hadiths; it consists of his sayings, actions, and silent approvals. These are H considered inspiration from Allah ( ) and are second only to the Qur'an in terms of significance and evidence. The Prophet's Sunnah has been preserved in books, the most famous of which are the authentic hadith collections of Bukhari and Muslim. The Prophet's Companions (may Allah be pleased with them) recorded or memorized his statements and actions, which were transmitted from generation to generation by scholars. A strict methodology of Hadith classification was developed to distinguish authentic hadiths from those that were weak or fabricated.

Four processes have been suggested to regulate observational learning in general, and these processes can likewise be applied to observational spiritual learning:7 Ð Attention is fostered by social and cultural patterns that draw attention to spiritual exemplars.8 In the case of Islam, for | example, Prophet Muhammad ( ) is remembered in each of the five daily prayers, consistently bringing the worshipper's attention to the importance of following his example. Ð Retention entails repetition of the biographical events and teachings of spiritual exemplars to foster memory of modelled behaviours. This may occur, for example, through 7 Bandura, 1986, pp. 51-55; Oman and Thoreson, 2003, p. 154. 8 Oman and Thoreson, 2003, p. 154. 9 rituals or transmission of verbal traditions. In Islam, a clear example of this process would be studying the hadiths of the Prophet ( | ) as well as his life story. Ð Reproduction occurs when an individual enacts what is 10 learned in daily life and attempts to refine skills over time. Examples of this in Islam would obviously be following the Sunnah of the Prophet Muhammad ( | ) in many aspects of life, such as the five daily prayers, daily supplications, good conduct, and so on. Ð Motivation, the final process, focuses on the rewards that 11 will be obtained for persisting in the spiritual quest. References to the peace and rewards that are promised to the believers are prevalent in the Islamic tradition. 9 Ibid. 10 Ibid. 11 Ibid., p. 155.

Trials and Tribulations of Life L ife has been determined by Allah ( H H ) to be an experience of tests and tribulations, difficulty and trials. Allah ( ) actually tests us with both good and evil. He says: {Every soul will taste death. And We test you with evil and with good as a trial; and to Us you will be returned.} (Qur'an 21: 35) Human existence is destined to be one of trials, one following the other in succession. All things on the earth, in fact, are part of the divine test that Allah has put forth for us; hardship and ease, wealth and poverty, good and bad... all are meant to be tests.

Times of crisis are particularly likely to awaken our spiritual side and to uncover the fit.rah that has been buried by false beliefs, H principles, ideals and behaviours. During these times, we are likely to H call upon Allah ( ) to save us from hardship and suffering. Allah ( ) reminds us of this fact: {And when affliction touches man, he calls upon Us, whether lying on his side or sitting or standing; but when We remove from him his affliction, he continues [in disobedience] as if he had never called upon Us to [remove] an affliction that touched him. Thus is made pleasing to the transgressors that which they have been doing.} (Qur'an 10: 12) {It is He who enables you to travel on land and sea until, when you are in ships and they sail with them by a good wind and they rejoice therein, there comes a stormy wind and the waves come upon them from everywhere and they assume that they are surrounded [doomed], supplicating Allah, sincere to Him in religion: If You should save us from this, we will surely be among the thankful. But when He saves them, at once they commit injustice upon the earth without right.

O humankind, your injustice is only against yourselves, [being merely] the enjoyment of worldly life. Then to Us is your return, and We will inform you of what you used to do.} (Qur'an 10: 22-23) From the perspective of Islam, tribulations are not meant to oppress us, but instead to assist us in realizing the truth of our existence and our potential for spiritual growth. Although on the surface they may appear to be evil or bad, tribulations are in reality something good and beneficial. Out of His mercy, Allah only ordains good for the human being. Our inability to understand events in the world from our limited human perspective does not denote the absence of higher purposes and goals.

Some patterns of events are recognizable and have clear cause and effect, while other things may not be clear. The wisdom behind these is beyond our comprehension. Allah mentions in the Qur'an: {...But perhaps you hate a thing and it is good for you; and perhaps you love a thing and it is bad for you. And Allah knows, while you know not.} (Qur'an 2: 216) This particular verse was revealed in relation to jihad, which is something that is very difficult, even for the believers. The same verse states: {Fighting has been enjoined upon you while it is hateful to you...} (Qur'an 2: 216) Events that seem to be bad may turn out to be best for us, while events that look good on the surface, and which we desire, may turn out to be harmful.

The tremendous benefits and rewards of jihad far outweigh the struggle that the fighter is required to engage in. Research in psychology has revealed that religious coping is commonly used by people in times of stress; personal faith and religious communities are the primary means by which people cope. Religious coping is generally defined as the ªProcess that people engage in to attain significance and meaning in stressful circumstances.''1 It may give meaning to life and explain such concepts as suffering, good versus evil, guilt and forgiveness. People are more likely to rely upon religion as the consequences of a situation become more serious. Purpose of trials and afflictions From the perspective of Islam, one of the purposes of these tests is to distinguish those who submit from those who refuse Ð in other words, to separate the believers from the disbelievers.

Allah ( ) H mentions: {Do the people think that they will be left to say: We believe, and they will not be tried? But We have certainly tried those before them, and Allah will surely make evident those who are truthful, and He will surely make evident the liars.} (Qur'an 29: 2-3) Research in the area of post-traumatic growth supports the reality of this Qur'anic verse. Exposure to trauma leads to a change in the strength of religious faith, either by causing an individual to abandon/weaken his faith2 or to embrace it even more.3 Through the 1 Pargament, K. I., 1997, The Psychology of Religion and Coping: Theory, Research, Practice, New York: Guilford Publications, p. 90. 2 Falsetti, S. A., Resick, P.

A., & Davis, J. L., 2003, Changes in religious beliefs following trauma, Journal of Traumatic Stress 16(4), p. 392. 3 Linley, P. A., & Joseph, S., 2004, Positive change following trauma and adversity: A review, Journal of Traumatic Stress, 17(1), p. 11. process of struggling with adversity, changes may occur that push the individual to a higher level of functioning than that which existed before the trauma.4 H The purpose of trials is not for Allah ( ) to find out something that He does not know, for Allah is All-Knowing. His knowledge encompasses everything that has happened in the past and that will H occur in the future. Allah ( ) already knows into which group each human will fall, and thus He knows who will go to paradise and who will enter the hellfire.

The purpose of these tests is to serve as a fulfilment of Allah's complete justice and mercy on the Day of Judgment. Some people will be sent to the hellfire due to the choices that they made in this life, while others will go to paradise due to their submission and obedience to Allah. In fact, humans only enter paradise due to Allah's grace and mercy, not by their deeds alone. | The Messenger of Allah ( ) said: «The deeds of any of you will not save you (from the hellfire). They said: Even you (will not be saved by your deeds), O Messenger of Allah? He said: No, even I (will not be saved) unless and until Allah protects me with His grace and His mercy.» (recorded by Bukhari) Part of Allah's mercy is to increase the reward for good deeds.

In any case, no one will be able to argue about where he or she is placed. Any type of pain or suffering that an individual experiences in this life may also serve as expiation for sins or lead to an increase in good deeds and rewards. In either case, there is benefit for the one | who suffers. Prophet Muhammad ( ) said: «No fatigue, nor disease, nor sorrow, nor sadness, nor hurt, nor distress befalls a Muslim, even if it were the prick he receives from a thorn, but that Allah expiates some of his sins for that.» (recorded by Bukhari and Muslim) 4 Ibid. For those who have sinned or transgressed the limits set by Allah H ( ), trials may serve as punishment for their transgressions.

This is also a mercy from Allah because it provides an opportunity for repenting and turning back to Allah. The punishment in this life is less severe than the punishment in the hereafter. As such, the calamities of this world are meant to serve as reminders for those who have strayed from the straight path. H Allah ( ) mentions: {Corruption has appeared throughout the land and sea by [reason of] what the hands of people have earned so He [Allah] may let them taste part of [the consequence of] what they have done, that perhaps they will return [to righteousness].} (Qur'an 30: 41) {And We will surely let them taste the nearer punishment short of the greater punishment, that perhaps they will return [repent].} (Qur'an 32: 21) The nearer punishment here refers to the tribulations, disasters and calamities of this life. This is beneficial for us in terms of the hereafter, since on the Day of Judgment, we will be judged according to our deeds.

Those whose scale of good deeds is heavy will be successful, while those H whose scale is light will be in despair. Allah ( ) has a purpose or plan behind the tribulations, which is mainly to elevate us in the hereafter, either saving us from the hellfire or raising our status in paradise. The general purpose of all this is to assist us in purification of the soul. An analogy may be made to the relationship between fire and gold. Fire is like the tribulation that separates our noble spiritual qualities (the gold) from our impurities (human weaknesses, desires and sins).

If the impurities are allowed to remain, the soul will continue to be tainted and will be unable to achieve its maximum potential in terms of spiritual growth. Since the hereafter is the believer's main goal, understanding these concepts will lead us to be patient and even grateful to Allah H ( ). Remembering the temporal nature of this world, and the rewards that will be obtained, helps to ease the burden. In the end, the trials and tribulations benefit us if we are patient and demonstrate H reliance upon Allah ( ). We will have the hope of earning rewards H from Allah ( ) for submitting to Him and the events that He has planned.

As a result of a test, our faith should increase, we should be closer to Allah, and our mental health should be stronger. We will obtain the benefits if we are patient and rely upon Allah to ease the burden. H Allah ( ) mentions in the Qur'an: {And We will surely test you with something of fear and hunger and a loss of wealth and lives and fruit, but give glad tidings to the patient, who, when disaster strikes them, say: Indeed, we belong to Allah, and indeed to Him we will return. Those are the ones upon whom are blessings from their Lord and mercy. And it is those who are the [rightly] guided.} (Qur'an 2: 155-157) | The Prophet ( ) said: «No Muslim is struck with an affliction and then says, `Truly, to Allah we belong and truly, to Him we shall return,' when the affliction strikes, and then says, `O Allah!

Reward me for my loss and give me what is better than it,' but Allah will do just that.» (recorded by Muslim) As-Saalih outlined five lessons5 that could be learned from experiencing tests in life: 1. Increasing worship of Allah, faith, and reliance upon Allah: A person realizes that he or she is weak and without power or strength, other than that given by Allah, so he or she will 5 as-Saalih, S., 2006, Testing, affliction, and calamities, retrieved October 26, 2010 from http://albaseerah.org/forum/showthread.php?t=4151. turn to Him and depend upon Him. The individual's comprehension of tawh . eed will be enhanced, and his or her Ãn will be augmented. eema 2. Understanding the reality of this life: That life is at times one of joy and amusement, yet at other times one of toil and struggle. The tests remind us of the temporal and trivial nature of this life, so that we do not become too attached to it. 3.

Remembering Allah's decree: Allah ( H ) says: {No disaster strikes upon the earth or among yourselves except that it is in a register before We bring it into being Ð indeed that, for Allah, is easy Ð In order that you not despair over what has eluded you and not exult [in pride] over what He has given you. And Allah does not like everyone self-deluded and boastful.} (Qur'an 57: 22-23) This verse reminds us to avoid being joyful for something to the point of pride and arrogance or being sad to the point of despair, as everything happens by the will and decree of Allah. 4. Remembering shortcomings and diseases: {What comes to you of good is from Allah, but what comes to you of evil [O humankind] is from yourself. And We have sent you [O Muhammad] to the people as a messenger, and sufficient is Allah as a witness.} (Qur'an 4: 79) This is important so that steps may be taken to remedy them before one is held accountable in the hereafter. Punishment in the hereafter is more severe than the calamities and hardships of this life. {And whatever strikes you of disaster Ð it is for what your hands have earned; but He pardons much.} (Qur'an 42: 30) This verse indicates that Allah is Forgiving and Merciful.

He also tests us so that we may repent and return to Him. {And We will surely let them taste the nearer punishment [disasters and calamities of this world] short of the greater punishment, that perhaps they will return [repent].} (Qur'an 32: 21) 5. Acquiring patience: Being firm upon the truth and obedience requires patience, as does refraining from falsehood and disobedience. {But none is granted it except those who are patient, and none is granted it except one having a great portion [of good].} (Qur'an 41: 35) During his or her lifetime, the believer will be either in a state of H gratitude to Allah ( ) or a state of being patient. The Prophet ( ) | said: «The affair of the believer is amazing in that it is always good for him, and this is true only for a believer. If something joyful comes to him, he gives thanks, and that is good for him. If something harmful comes to him, he is patient, and that is good for him.» (recorded by Muslim) Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyah phrased it in this way: There is neither strength nor power save in Allah Almighty.

It is Allah we implore Ð and whose answer we await Ð to watch over you in this world and the next, to shower you with His graces, outwardly and inwardly, and to make you among those who, when blessed, give thanks; when tried, persevere; and when sinful, seek forgiveness. For these three conditions are tokens of the servant's happiness, and the signs of his success in this world and the next. No servant is without them, but is always shifting from one to the other. The first condition is the blessings which come to the servant from Allah (Most High), one after another. What secures them is gratitude (shukr), based on three supports: inward recognition of the blessing; outward mention and thanks for it; and its use in a way that pleases the One to whom it truly belongs and who truly bestows it.

Acting thus, the servant shows his gratitude for the blessing Ð however brief. The second is the trials from Allah (Most High) which test the servant, whose duty therein is patient perseverance (s.abr) and forbearance to restrain himself from anger with what is decreed; to restrain his tongue from complaint; to restrain his limbs from offences, such as striking one's face in grief, rending one's clothes, tearing one's hair and like acts. Patience, then, rests on these three supports, and if the servant maintains them as he should, affliction will become benefaction, trial will change to bounty and what he disliked will become what he loves. For Allah (Exalted and Sublime) does not try the servant in order to destroy him. Rather, He tries him to put his patience and devotion [`uboodiyyah] to the test.

For the servant owes devotion to Allah in affliction as in ease. He must have as much devotion in what he hates as in what he loves, and while most people offer devotion in what they love, it is important to do so in the things they hate. It is by this that servants' ranks are distinguished and their stations determined.6 Shaykh Ibn al-Uthaymeen stated that people afflicted with calamities could be divided into four categories in terms of their reactions to the difficult situation:7 1. Discontent (prohibited), which entails being angry with Allah and becoming upset with the decree of Allah (invoking destruction, tearing clothes, slapping cheeks) 2. Patience (obligatory), which means that they attempt to bear it, and although they detest it, their faith keeps them from being in the first category of discontent 3.

Acceptance (preferred), indicating that the presence of the 6 al-Jawziyyah, 2000, pp. 1-2. 7 Ibn al-Uthaymeen, M. S., In Times of Calamity, People Divide into Four Levels, retrieved October 25, 2010 from http://abdurrahmanorg.wordpress.com/ 2010/08/29/in-times-of-calamity-people-divide-into-four-levels/. tribulation is not hard upon them, and it is the same for them whether it is present or absent 4. Gratitude, which is the highest level of being thankful to Allah for the hardship, as they realize the benefits that may be attained, such as removal of sins, increasing rewards, and so on. Benefits of religious coping Religious coping is associated with both physical health and mental health-related outcomes in a variety of critical life situations, 8 including illness, victimization, war, and the death of a loved one. It adds to health and well-being beyond the effects of non-religious 9 coping on its own.

Pargament suggests that religious coping methods mediate the relationship between the person's general religious view and the results of major life events, meaning that religious beliefs and practices have to be translated into specific 10 forms of coping. These coping methods have direct implications on the health of the individual during stressful situations. The suggested benefits of spirituality at the time of coping also include providing a source of comfort and means of healing from the traumatic experience; offering hope and optimism; giving meaning and purpose to the event; providing a framework for coming to grips with limits of personal knowledge, control, and resources; offering an external framework of control; and providing a way to `transcend' the experience. 8 Pargament, K. I., Smith, B. W., Koenig, H.

G., & Perez, L., 1998, Patterns of positive and negative religious coping with major life stressors, Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 37(4), p. 710. 9 Pargament, 1997, pp. 279-288. 10 Ibid. Researchers have determined that a particular type of religious coping, collaborative religious coping, has the most benefit for the individual's physical and mental health. Collaborative religious coping involves seeking control through partnership with God in problem-solving.11 This means that the person relies upon God, while at the same time attempting to do his or her part to change or cope with the situation. Other methods, such as deferring (when the individual takes a passive role in coping efforts and waits for God to control the situation) and self-directing (seeking control through individual initiative rather than help from God), have been found to produce mixed results, including possible exacerbation of conditions.12 It is of interest to note that the Islamic concept of reliance upon H Allah ( ) is similar to the collaborative form of religious coping, H although Muslims view Allah ( ) as above the situation and obviously possessing more power and control than they do. He is, in fact, All-Powerful.

Collaborative religious coping focuses on a partnership with God, seemingly at the same level, which is contrary to Islamic beliefs. However, the idea of taking action and relying upon Allah at the same time is present in Islam. H Allah ( ) mentions: {...And whoever relies upon Allah Ð then He is sufficient for him. Indeed, Allah will accomplish his purpose. Allah has already set for everything a [decreed] extent.} (Qur'an 65: 3) {Rely upon Allah; and sufficient is Allah as disposer of affairs.} (Qur'an 33: 3) 11 Pargament et al., 1998, p. 711. 12 Fabricatore, A.

N., Handal, P. J., Rubio, D. M., & Gilner, F. H., 2004, Stress, religion, and mental health: Religious coping in mediating and moderating roles, The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 14(2), p. 104; Pargament et al., 1998, pp. 711-712. H Reliance upon Allah ( ), particularly during times of stress and difficulty, also involves one's taking action through the means created by Allah, within the limits of the Sharia, towards the desired outcome.

At the same time, one trusts and depends upon Allah, who is All-Powerful and All-Mighty. Relying upon Allah in this way will lead to the most beneficial results, both in this life and in the hereafter. In the Islamic perspective, reliance upon Allah does not mean either abandoning the means to achieve an end or abandoning hope in Allah's mercy and relying upon oneself. Both reliance upon Allah and action must be combined. H Reliance upon Allah ( ) is also connected to belief in His qadr.

H Allah ( ) mentions: {No disaster strikes upon the earth or among yourselves except that it is in a register before We bring it into being Ð indeed that, for Allah, is easy Ð In order that you not despair over what has eluded you, and not exult [in pride] over what He has given you...} (Qur'an 57: 22-23) Unfortunately, following a tribulation and its associated spiritual growth, humans often return to the same condition that they were in before they were tested. This fact is mentioned in several of the H verses at the beginning of this chapter. Allah ( ) also mentions their return to disbelief after adversity: {And if We let him taste mercy from Us after an adversity which has touched him, he will surely say: This is [due] to me, and I do not think the Hour will occur; and [even] if I should be returned to my Lord, indeed, for me there will be with Him the best...} (Qur'an 41: 50) H Allah ( ) continues to test humans to give us sufficient opportunities to repent and return to Him. Consciousness, Sleep and Dreaming Consciousness is generally defined as our awareness of ourselves, others, and our environment. Conscious processing allows us to perform voluntary tasks, to reason, to solve problems and to communicate with others.

At times, we also unconsciously process information, particularly when we perform tasks automatically, such as driving a car. Our sensory systems and neural pathways register information, but since we do not focus on this activity, we are not `consciously' aware of it.1 While we may have slightly `altered' states of consciousness while we are awake, such as daydreaming or drowsiness, Islam enjoins clarity of mind and thinking as essential to functioning in life. It is for this reason that alcohol and drugs, or any substance or activity that significantly alters this consciousness and the related ability to reason, are prohibited. Hypnosis, some forms of meditation and yoga, and various practices of some Sufi orders would fall into this prohibited category. 1 Myers, 2007, pp. 271-273. Sleep As discussed earlier, sleep is one of the physiological needs of the human.

Sleep is the opposite of wakefulness and thus on the other end of the consciousness continuum. While an individual will not be held accountable for deeds during sleep, sleep actually becomes a form of worship when it is done for the sake of Allah (H), with the purpose of restoring the body's energy sufficiently to enable the person to engage in further acts of worship. Allah (H) mentions that the purpose of sleep is to rest the body: {And made your sleep [a means for] rest.} (Qur'an 78: 9) Sleep is important for a variety of reasons. Science has confirmed the importance of sleep and rest, both physically and psychologically. Sleep helps the body to recuperate after a long day of work and effort, by restoring and repairing brain tissue; this is why we wake up in the morning feeling refreshed and energized.

Research also indicates that sleep is important for concentration, storage of memories, creativity, problem-solving, and mood. Physically, sleep strengthens the body by boosting immune cells and fortifying the disease-fighting immune system.2 Sleep is actually considered a sign from Allah (H). He mentions: {And of His signs is your sleep by night and day and your seeking of His bounty. Indeed in that are signs for a people who listen.} As a sign from Allah (H), sleep is likened to death and is (Qur'an 30: 23) considered to be the lesser death. Waking up in the morning is like a resurrection.

When a person sleeps at night, the soul is taken by the angels. Allah (H) decides whose soul is returned to the body and whose is not. If Allah (H) wishes to keep a soul while the person is 2 Ibid., pp. 280-283. sleeping, He does so, and if He wills that a person should remain in 3 this life, He returns the soul until the decreed time of death. {And it is He who takes your souls by night [when you sleep] and knows what you have committed by day. Then He revives you therein [by day] that a specified term may be fulfilled. Then to Him will be your return; then He will inform you about what you used to do.} (Qur'an 6: 60) {Allah takes the souls at the time of their death, and those that do not die [He takes] during their sleep.

Then He keeps those for which He has decreed death and releases the others for a specified term. Indeed in that are signs for a people who give thought.} (Qur'an 39: 42) Sleep etiquette Muslims have been instructed to follow certain practices of the Prophet ( | ) prior to sleeping. These include making ablution and sleeping on the right side of the body. The Prophet ( | ) said: «When you go to your bed, then perform the same ablution that you perform for prayer. Next, lie down on your right side, and then say: O Allah, I submit my soul unto You, and I entrust my affair to You...» (recorded by Bukhari and Muslim) It is not obligatory to perform ablution, but it is recommended for several reasons.

It is better to be in a state of purity prior to sleep in case your soul is taken at night and not returned. You would then die in a pure state. Also, when sleeping with purity, dreams tend to be 4 more truthful, and you will be protected from the harm of Satan. Sleeping on the right side is also strongly encouraged and has scientifically been found to have certain health benefits, including less pressure on the heart, aiding in digestion, and generally being 3 al-Ashqar, 2002a, pp. 28-29. 4 ash-Shulboob, F. A., 2003, The Book of Manners , Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Darussalam, p. 280. better for the back.

Several hadiths indicate that sleeping on the stomach is disliked. The person who is retiring for the night should also read specific chapters or verses from the Qur'an, as well as supplications, in order to protect against evil forces during the night. These include the last three chapters of the Qur'an (al-IkhlaÃs, al-Falaq, and an-NaÃs), aÃyat al-Kursi (`the verse of the footstool', Qur'an 2: 255), the last two verses of Soorah al-Baqarah, and others. Z | Ã 'ishah ( ) said: «When the Prophet ( ) would retire to his `A bed every night, he would gather his hands together and then blow into them. Then he would read in them: Say (O Muhammad): He is Allah, the One [Soorat al-IkhlaÃs], Say: I seek refuge with (Allah) the Lord of the daybreak [Soorat al-Falaq], Say: I seek refuge with (Allah) the Lord of humankind [Soorat an-NaÃs].

Then he would wipe them over as much of his body as he was able to, beginning with them over his head, his face, and the front part of his body. He did that three times.» (recorded by Bukhari) There are several supplications that may be used, including the one mentioned in the following hadith: | The Prophet ( ) said: «When one of you retires to his bed, let him dust off his bed with the side of his lower garment, for indeed, he does not know what came on it after he left it (the last time). Next, let him lie down on his right side, and then let him say: In Your name, my Lord, I lie down, and in Your name I rise, so if You should take my soul, then have mercy upon it, and if You should return my soul, then protect it in the manner You do so with Your righteous servants.» (recorded by Bukhari and Muslim) Dreaming There are many contemporary theories regarding dreams, but these are inconclusive because dreams can only be verified by the dreamer and are not conducive to scientific enquiry. It is for this reason that true knowledge of dreams can only really come from the Creator. In Islam, dreams can be considered a form of inspiration.

In X| fact, revelation to Prophet Muhammad ( ) initially came in the form X of dreams, and Prophet Abraham ( ) had a dream about sacrificing his son Ishmael ( ).5 | A hadith of the Prophet ( ) explains that dreams are of three | types, or from three sources. He ( ) said: «When the Day of Resurrection approaches, the dream of a Muslim hardly fails to come true, and the truest dream will be of him who is the truest among you. And a dream of a believer is one of the forty-five parts of prophethood. There are three types of dreams: 1. Glad tidings from Allah, 2. what is suggested by Satan to frighten the dreamer, 3. the reflection of the thoughts and experiences one has during wakefulness.

If someone has a dream which he dislikes, he should not tell it to others but should get up and perform prayer.» (recorded by Muslim) | The Messenger of Allah ( ) said: «A good dream is from Allah, so if you see a dream which you like, you should not tell it to anybody except those whom you love. And if you see a dream which you dislike, then you should seek refuge with Allah from its evil and from the evil of Satan, and spit three times (on your left) and do not tell anybody about it, then it will not harm you.» (recorded by Muslim) These hadiths indicate the etiquette that should be followed after experiencing certain dreams. If you see a good dream, you should be joyful and inform only those whom you love. Following a bad dream, you should spit three times to the left side and seek refuge in Allah 5 See Qur'an 37: 102 from the accursed Satan and from the evil of the dream. There is also evidence to indicate that you should change sides (if lying on the left, turn around and lie on the right side) or even stand up and pray, as recorded in Muslim.

Finally, you should not inform anyone about these bad dreams. The purpose of these steps is to prevent the dream from causing you harm. Dream interpretation Only select individuals among the servants of Allah ( H ) are given the capability to interpret dreams. Prophets were one of the categories of people given this favour. Prophet Muhammad ( | ) would often listen to and interpret the dreams of his Companions, 6 usually after the morning prayer.

It is recorded in Bukhari and Muslim that when the Prophet ( | ) finished saying his prayer, he would turn around and ask his Companions whether any of them had had a dream at night. | H It should be noted that the Prophet ( ) was only able to interpret dreams due to knowledge given to him from Allah ( ) via the angel Gabriel. It was not from his own knowledge or guesswork, but rather from true revelation. For this reason, his interpretations were X accurate. Prophet Joseph ( ) was an expert in dream interpretation. This is mentioned in the chapter named after him. {My Lord, You have given me [something] of sovereignty and taught X me of the interpretation of dreams...} (Qur'an 12: 101) Joseph ( ) interpreted the dreams of his companions in prison, and also that of the king, which resulted in saving many lives from a great famine. 6 Philips, A.

A. B., 1996, Dream Interpretation According to the Qur'an and Sunnah, Sharjah, UAE: Dar Al Fatah, p. 38. {And [subsequently] the king said: Indeed, I have seen [in a dream] seven fat cows being eaten by seven [that were] lean, and seven green spikes [of grain] and others [that were] dry. O eminent ones, explain to me my vision, if you should interpret dreams. They said: [It is but] a mixture of false dreams, and we are not learned in the interpretation of dreams. But the one who was freed and remembered after a time said: I will inform you of its interpretation, so send me forth. [He said:] Joseph, O man of truth, explain to us about seven fat cows eaten by seven [that were] lean, and seven green spikes [of grain] and others [that were] dry Ð that I may return to the people [the king and his court]; perhaps they will know [about you]. [Joseph] said: You will plant for seven years consecutively; and what you harvest leave in it spikes, except a little from which you will eat.

Then will come after that seven difficult [years] which will consume what you had advanced [saved] for them, except a little from which you will store. Then will come after that a year in which the people will be given rain, and in which they will press [olives and grapes].} (Qur'an 12: 43-49) Philips outlines five principles regarding the interpretation of dreams:7 1. Dreams may be interpreted by other than the prophets. 2. Interpretation should only be provided for good dreams. 3. Good dreams should only be given positive interpretations. 4. Only the interpretations of prophets were 100% accurate; interpretation by other humans may be either correct or incorrect.