2. Physical changes: 4. Spiritual changes

a. Preternatural strength b. Epileptic convulsions c. Catatonic symptoms d. Anaesthesia to pain e.

Voice change f. Psychosomatic pains (especially migraine headaches) 3 Cognitive changes a. Glossolalia (speaking a language one does not know, or speaking elaborate but apparently meaningless speech) 13 à wa Ibn Taymiyah, Majmoo` al-Fata à , Vol. 24, p. 277; as quoted in Philips, The Exorcist Tradition in Islam, p. 78. b. Clouding of consciousness c. Preternatural knowledge d.

Recurrent nightmares e. Insomnia a. Strong reaction to Qur'anic recitation or the call to prayer b. Adverse reaction when touched by oil on which the Qur'an has been read; or when bathed in water over which the Qur'an has been read; or when water over which Qur'an has been read is drunk c. Abandonment of religious practices Not all cases brought to the attention of religious leaders are true cases of demonic possession, as symptoms may also be caused by psychological, biological, or social factors.14 Ibn Taymiyah has suggested that the jinn possess humans for three reasons: 1. sensual desires on the part of the jinn, or even love; 2. play, jest or evil on the part of jinn; 3. jinn becoming angry due to some wrong that has been done to them.

In the last situation, which is the most common, the jinn will attempt to punish those who wronged them. For example, if a person accidentally harms a jinni by urinating on him or by pouring hot water on him, the jinni may think that it was done intentionally. He may then try to take revenge by punishing the human more severely than he deserves.15 14 Philips, 1997, pp. 144-145. 15 Ibn Taymeeyah's Essay on the Jinn (from Philips, The Exorcist Tradition in Islam, p. 93-4). Possession is another one of the means that Satan attempts to pull humans into false worship. People who are possessed will seek the help of other humans, who may engage in various forms of shirk or idolatry in order to remove the jinn.

They may, for example, call upon their false gods (Jesus or Buddha) during exorcism. One may ask how it is that they sometimes produce a cure when they are making use of bogus methods. The answer is that the jinn may leave by their own choice after their goal of leading humans to shirk was achieved. Their shirk will have been confirmed, and thus their false beliefs solidified. The jinn, of course, may easily re-enter the body, so it will not be a complete cure.

The only true cure comes from the prescribed ruqyah from the Qur'an and Hadith and calling upon Allah alone for assistance. In this case, the jinn will be forced to leave the body. Jinn primarily possess those individuals with little faith or religious proclivity, since they may easily attack and overcome them. H As for the believers, they are granted protection from Allah ( ) due to their following of the Sunnah in daily practices and supplications, H including seeking refuge in Allah. Allah ( ) says: {Indeed, there is for him no authority over those who have believed and rely upon their Lord.

His authority is only over those who take him as an ally and those who, through him, associate others with Allah.} (Qur'an 16: 99-100) S The jinn actually fear the strong righteous believers, as in the | case of `Umar ibn al-Khat.t.aÃb ( ). The Prophet ( ) said: «Surely, I can see the devils among the jinn and among humankind fleeing from `Umar.» (a sound hadith recorded by at-Tirmidhi) It is important to mention that not all cases of insanity or epileptic seizures are due to evil jinn. Even early scholars recognized that they may be due to biological causes, and they understood the chronic nature of such illnesses. Biological theories of these diseases have advanced in modern times, almost to the point of obliterating the `supernatural' explanations. The key question, however, is not regarding which of the theories is true, but rather which is functioning in a particular patient.

This requires a complete and accurate assessment and a multi-disciplinary approach involving the co-operation of medical doctors and religious experts. Methods of Satan Satan uses many methods to lead humans astray. He attempts to make sinning attractive and modifies his strategies based upon the weaknesses of the particular individual who is his target. The following are some of those methods: Making evil seem appealing Satan attempts to lure the human into misdeeds by making them attractive and appealing. He makes what is false seem as if it is the truth; and he hides the truth by making it appear as falsehood.

In this way the person will be impelled to do evil and to turn away from the 16 truth. This fact is mentioned in the Qur'an: {[Satan] said: My Lord, because You have put me in error, I will surely make [disobedience] attractive to them [humankind] on earth, and I will mislead them all. Except, among them, Your chosen servants.} (Qur'an 15: 39-40) Satan makes falsehood seem alluring by emphasizing the benefit that the human will obtain from it (although, in actuality, it leads to harm) and by giving pleasing names to the forbidden entities. The X first instance of his evil works became evident in the story of Adam ( ) and Eve. Satan made eating from the forbidden tree seem to be a good and beneficial act by saying that it was the `tree of eternal life' and that if they ate from it, they would live in paradise forever and 16 al-Ashqar, 1998, pp. 96-97. become like angels.17 Allah ( H) says: {But Satan whispered to them to make apparent to them that which was concealed from them of their private parts.

He said: Your Lord did not forbid you this tree except that you become angels or become of the immortal. And he swore [by Allah] to them: Indeed, I am to you from among the sincere advisors.} (Qur'an 7: 20-21) He adds to the enticement by indicating that he is a `sincere advisor.' Going to extremes Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyah wrote: Allah never orders anything except that Satan takes two contradictory stances toward it: either shortcoming and negligence or overzealousness and exaggeration. It does not matter [to him] by which of these two mistakes he becomes victorious over the slave. He comes to the heart of the slave and examines it. If he finds in it listlessness and looking for loopholes, he deals with him from that vantage.

He impedes him and makes him sit. He strikes him with laziness, listlessness and lethargy. He opens for him the door to reinterpretations, hopes and so forth until the slave may not fulfill anything of what he is commanded. If he finds in the slave's heart alertness, seriousness, desire to work and potential, Satan despairs from attacking him from the above means. Instead, he orders him to strive even harder.

He convinces him that what he is doing is not sufficient for him. His ambition is to be greater than that. He must work more than the other workers...He makes him go to extremes and beyond the limits. He makes him stray from the straight path in the same way that he makes the first person fall short of the straight path 17 Ibid., pp. 98, 100. and not approach it. Satan's intention for both is to keep them from the straight path: the first by making him not come close or near to it and the second by making him pass it and go beyond it.

Many of creation are misled by these two strategies. There is no escape from them except deep knowledge, faith and the strength 18 to fight Satan and stay along the middle path. In the first case, Satan deters the humans from beneficial actions by encouraging laziness, lethargy and procrastination. The individuals are led to believe that they have a long period of time to complete their work, and so they delay until they can no longer delay, and then they must rush to complete everything in a haphazard, incomplete, and imperfect manner. This aspect also applies to those who postpone in bringing themselves closer to Allah, purifying their souls, making repentance, and so forth.

They may delay until the Angel of Death comes to them, at which time it will be too late. | The Prophet ( ) said: «During your sleep, Satan ties three knots at the back of your necks. He breathes the following into them: The night is long, so keep on sleeping. If the person wakes and praises Allah, then one of the knots is unfastened. If he performs ablution, the second knot is unfastened. When he prays, all of the knots are unfastened.

After that, he will be energetic and happy in the morning. Otherwise he will get up listless and grouchy.» (recorded by Bukhari) Attacking human weaknesses Satan attempts to attack the human through weaknesses of the soul. These weaknesses include, but are not limited to, pride, anger, greediness, miserliness, love of wealth, doubts, vanity, despair and fear. As mentioned earlier, part of the goal in life is to purify the soul from these weaknesses. Satan works to block anyone who attempts to 18 Ibn al-Qayyim, 2000, p. 19; as quoted in al-Ashqar, 1998, pp. 100-101. achieve this goal.

The path of following one's desires is easy, so Satan often does not need to work hard to misguide people. This can be accomplished by focusing on what the person loves or desires. Ibn al-Qayyim wrote: Satan flows in humans like blood to the point that he meets with the human's soul and mixes with it. He asks it what it loves and what affects it. When he gets that knowledge, he uses it against the person.

He gets to him through those means. Similarly, he informs his brothers and devotees. Among humans, when they desire their evil from each other, they get to each other through what they love and desire. For the one who enters through this door, it is a gate through which he will never be dissatisfied. If someone attempts to get to him through other means, the door will be closed to him.

And he will be on a path that is closed in 19 front of him. Taking a gradual approach Satan generally does not guide people directly into committing major sins, for this approach is likely to be unsuccessful. Rather, he takes them step by step, in a gradual process, to greater acts of disobedience to Allah. If they are pleased with one step, Satan moves on to the next. An example would be the use of alcohol.

A student may know that alcohol is wrong and say to himself that he will never drink. He meets some new friends (allies of Satan) at the university who happen to drink, and they invite him to a gathering at which there will be alcohol. Initially, he declines, but his friends convince him by telling him that he doesn't have to drink; he can just come and enjoy the socializing. He attends a few of these parties where everyone is drinking; at the next one, someone puts a glass of alcohol 19 Ibn al-Qayyim, Ighaatha al-Luhfaan, p. 132; as quoted in al-Ashqar, 1998, pp. 113-114. in front of him and tells him to just take a sip. He decides to try it and says that he will only take one drink.

At the following get-together, he drinks a complete glass, and so on, until he becomes a heavy drinker and addicted to alcohol. He is led to destruction by Satan in a very slow and steady manner. Forgetfulness H Satan attempts to make people forgetful, so that they will not worship Allah ( ) in an absolute manner: {And We had already taken a promise from Adam before, but he forgot; and We found not in him determination.} (Qur'an 20: 115) H H Allah ( ) prohibits the believers from sitting with those who mock the signs of Allah ( ), but Satan makes them forget: {And when you see those who engage in [offensive] discourse concerning Our verses, then turn away from them until they enter into another conversation. And if Satan should cause you to forget, then do not remain after the reminder with the wrongdoing people.} (Qur'an 6: 68) H In cases where Satan gains complete control over the people, he will lead them to forget the remembrance of Allah ( ) completely: {Satan has overcome them and made them forget the remembrance of Allah. Those are the party of Satan.

Unquestionably, the party of Satan Ð they will be the losers.} (Qur'an 58: 19) This is the greatest loss for the human being. Protection from Satan and the evil jinn There are several methods by which humans may protect themselves from the influence of Satan and the evil jinn. If Satan H attempts to whisper or suggest evil, the individuals should seek refuge in Allah ( ). Allah (H) says: {And if there comes to you from Satan an evil suggestion, then seek refuge in Allah. Indeed, He is the Hearing, the Knowing.} (Qur'an 41: 36) {And if an evil suggestion comes to you from Satan, then seek refuge in Allah.

Indeed, He is Hearing and Knowing.} (Qur'an 7: 200) They may also recite various chapters or verses of the Qur'an, including the last two chapters (al-Falaq and an-NaÃs), aÃyat al-kursi (`the verse of the footstool', Qur'an 2: 255), Soorat al-Baqarah, and the last two verses of Soorat al-Baqarah. It is also beneficial to read the Qur'an often, engage in frequent remembrance of Allah, and recite suitable supplications. An example of a supplication is in the following hadith: The Messenger (|) said: «Whoever says: Laà ilaÃha ill-AllaÃhu wah à shareeka lahu, lahul-mulku wa lahul-h . dahu la . amdu wa Huwa à kulli shay'in Qadeer `ala (None has the right to be worshipped but Allah [Alone], Who has no partner; to Him belongs the kingdom [of the universe], and for Him are all the praises, and He has the power to do everything), one hundred times a day will get the same reward as given for freeing ten slaves; and one hundred good deeds will be written in his accounts, and one hundred sins will be deducted from his accounts, and it (his saying) will be a shield for him from Satan on that day until night, and nobody will be able to do a better deed except the one who does more than he.» (recorded by Bukhari) Allah (H) mentions several times in the Qur'an that the believer will be protected from the workings of Satan: {So when you recite the Qur'an, [first] seek refuge in Allah from Satan, the expelled [from His mercy]. Indeed, there is for him no authority over those who have believed and rely upon their Lord. His authority is only over those who take him as an ally and those who, through him, associate others with Allah.} (Qur'an 16: 98-100) {Indeed, over My [believing] servants there is for you no authority.

And sufficient is your Lord as disposer of affairs.} (Qur'an 17: 65) Abnormal Psychology and Mental Illness {B y time, indeed, humankind is in loss, except for those who have believed and done righteous deeds and advised each other to truth and advised each other to patience.} (Qur'an 103: 1-3) The topic of mental illness is extensive and requires a book of its own, but we will cover some of the main points here. There are probably more than one hundred different types of mental illness known to human experience. The two most common mental illnesses are depression and anxiety. Both of them can be debilitating diseases that may lead to such an extreme that the person attempts to end his or her life due to the associated anguish and suffering. Depression is often a response to past or current loss, while anxiety is generally a response to the threat of future loss.

Defining mental illness Grief is an innate aspect of the human experience and can be considered to be the opposite of happiness. Grief is mentioned in the H | Qur'an in several places. Allah ( ) told the Prophet ( ) not to grieve over the disbelievers: {And do not be grieved [O Muhammad] by those who hasten into disbelief. Indeed, they will never harm Allah at all...} (Qur'an 3: 176) {Perhaps [O Muhammad] you would kill yourself with grief that they will not be believers.} X (Qur'an 26: 3) The Prophet Jacob ( ) was saddened by the loss of his son X Joseph ( ), even though he was patient, relied upon Allah, and tried to cover his grief. {And he turned away from them and said: Oh, my sorrow over Joseph, and his eyes became white [he lost his sight] from grief, for he was [of that] a suppressor.} (Qur'an 12: 84) He did not express his grief or anger, although he suspected that his other sons had something to do with Joseph's disappearance. Those who follow Allah's guidance will experience no fear or grief.

This is one of the promises of Allah (H), and it will be most important on the Day of Judgment: {We said: Go down from it, all of you. And when guidance comes to you from Me, whoever follows My guidance Рthere will be no fear concerning them, nor will they grieve.} (Qur'an 2: 38) People feel grief at various times due to difficulties and challenges in life, but it is generally a temporary state. Depression is distinct from grief in that it is more severe and prolonged, even to the point of being a chronic condition. The Arabic term for depression is à b, which comes from the root word ka'iba, meaning to be ikti'a dejected, dispirited, downcast, or sad.1 It implies deep sorrow and grief. The symptoms of depression include: depressed mood, loss of interest in pleasurable activities, feelings of worthlessness and guilt, poor concentration, changes in appetite and weight (either increase or decrease), changes in sleep (either insomnia, which is the inability to 1 Wehr, 1974, p. 807. sleep well, or hypersomnia, which is sleeping much more than necessary), and suicidal thoughts.

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), depression is the leading cause of disability worldwide and the fourth leading contributor to the global burden of disease. By the year 2020, it is expected to reach second place in the global burden of disease for all ages and both genders. On a yearly basis, depression affects 121 million people worldwide, which is approximately ten 2 percent of women and six percent of men. Anxiety disorders are characterized by distressing and persistent nervousness, apprehension and worry, or maladaptive behaviours that reduce the anxiety. The most common anxiety disorders are: Ð Generalized anxiety disorder: persistent feelings of anxiety and tension, worry that bad things might happen, muscle tension, agitation and insomnia. Ð Panic disorder: panic attacks, which are sudden, brief episodes of intense fear that include symptoms like heart palpitations, shortness of breath, choking sensations, trembling and dizziness.

The symptoms are often perceived as a heart attack or other physical ailment. Ð Phobias: irrational fears that focus on a specific object, activity, or situation such as heights, blood, animals, tunnels, or flying. Ð Obsessive-compulsive disorder: obsessive, repetitive thoughts that cause anxiety, followed by compulsive or repetitive behaviour to reduce the anxiety. The most common example is obsessive concern with dirt and germs 2 World Health Organization, Depression, retrieved February 2, 2010 from www.who.int/mental_health/management/depression/definition/en/print.hmtl. and excessive hand washing, bathing, or brushing the teeth 3 to eliminate them. Another word that is used in the Qur'an to signify psychological stress is d.aÃqat, which means to be or become narrow, straitened, or confined. It also means to be anguished, uneasy, depressed, or dejected. The noun d.eeq means narrowness, tightness, or confinement, as well as anguish, depression, distress, worry, or 4 anxiety.

One who is depressed or anxious will feel constriction and tightness, as if the world is closing in on them. This term was used in the story of the three Companions who | failed to join the Messenger ( ) in the Battle of Tabook. The three men were Ka`b ibn MaÃlik, HilaÃl ibn Umayyah and Murarah ibn arRabee` (may Allah be pleased with them) of the Ans.aÃr [the Muslim | citizens of Madinah who gave refuge to the Prophet ( ) and the other Muslim emigrants from Makkah]. {And [He also forgave] the three who were left behind [and regretted their error] to the point that the earth closed in on them, in spite of its vastness, and their souls confined [anguished] them, and they were certain that there is no refuge from Allah except in Him. Then He turned to them so they could repent. Indeed, Allah is the accepting of repentance, the Merciful.} (Qur'an 9: 118) | Initially, the Prophet ( ) did not accept their excuses for failing S to join the battle, and thus the Muslims ignored them for fifty days and nights.

Ka`b ibn MaÃlik ( ) described this experience : «When I had finished the dawn prayer on the fiftieth morning on the roof of one of our houses, while sitting in the condition in which Allah described (in the Qur'an): my very soul seemed straitened to me, and even the earth seemed narrow to me for all its spaciousness.» (recorded by Bukhari and Muslim) 3 Myers, 2007, pp. 649-652. 4 Wehr, 1974, pp. 548-549. H Thereafter, Allah ( ) accepted their repentance, and they were relieved from the confinement of their souls. Another incident occurred in the Battle of H.unayn. The Muslims were proud of their large numbers, but their numbers did not benefit them at all; they became confined and retreated from the battle. Allah H ( ) says: {Allah has already given you victory in many regions and [even] on the day of H.unayn, when your great number pleased you, but it did not avail you at all, and the earth was confining for you with [in spite of] its vastness; then you turned back, fleeing.} (Qur'an 9: 25) H | Allah ( ) sent help to His Messenger ( ), and then they were victorious.5 This concept of confinement or constriction is also used in the Qur'an to refer to the heart or the chest (breast).

For example, regarding the disbelievers, Allah ( ) says: H {...And whoever He wants to misguide Ð He makes his chest tight and constricted, as though he were climbing into the sky. Thus does Allah place defilement upon those who do not believe.} (Qur'an 6: 125) | He also says to Prophet Muhammad ( ), regarding those who mock the religion of Allah: {And we already know that your breast is constrained by what they say.} X (Qur'an 15: 97) Prophet Lot ( ) also felt constriction and distress when the angels came to destroy the city. {And when Our messengers [angels] came to Lot, he was distressed for them and felt for them great discomfort. They said: Fear not, nor grieve...} (Quran 29: 33) 5 Ibn Kathir, 2000, Vol. 4, pp. 397-400. Suicide Each year, approximately 850,000 people worldwide end their lives by suicide. An additional twelve to twenty-five non-fatal suicide attempts are made for every one of these deaths.

There are various risk factors for suicide, including depression and other mental disorders, substance abuse disorders, family history of these disorders, family history of suicide, history of trauma or abuse, and so on. More than ninety percent of those who commit suicide have one of the first two risk factors.6 Some of the protective factors for suicide include effective care for mental and substance abuse disorders, strong connections to family, community support, and cultural and religious beliefs that discourage suicide and emphasize self-preservation.7 Religiosity, in particular, has been found to be a strong protective factor against suicide. Researchers of suicide have found that rates of suicide are much lower in Muslim countries.8 Religiosity and religious commitment act as protective factors for both Muslims and nonMuslims. This is hypothesized to be related to basic life-preserving values, beliefs, and practices that reduce rates of suicide.9 For Muslims, the injunctions against suicide in religious texts, as well as the fear of eternal damnation in hellfire, are likely to play a role.10 | The Prophet ( ) said: «None of you should wish for death because of a calamity befalling him, but if he were to wish for death, 6 Suicide Resource Prevention Center, Risk and Protective Factors for Suicide, retrieved February 2, 2010 from http://www.sprc.org/library/srisk.pdf. 7 Ibid. 8 Mohyuddin, F., 2008, Suicide in the Muslim world, International Journal of Child Health and Human Development, 1(3), pp. 273-279. 9 Dervic, K., Oquendo, M. A., Grunebaum, M.

F., Ellis, S., Burke, A. K., & Mann, J. J., 2004, Religious affiliation and suicide attempt, American Journal of Psychiatry, 161(12), pp. 2303-2308. 10 Mohyuddin, 2008, pp. 273-279. he should say: O Allah! Keep me alive as long as life is better for me, and let me die if death is better for me.» (recorded by Bukhari) | The Prophet ( ) also said: «...And none of you should wish for death, for if he is a good-doer, he may increase his good deeds, and if he is an evil-doer, he may repent to Allah.» (recorded by Bukhari) | The Prophet ( ) said: «Whoever kills himself with an iron weapon will be carrying that weapon in his hand and stabbing his abdomen with it in the hellfire, wherein he will abide for all eternity; whoever drinks poison and kills himself with it, he will be carrying his poison in his hand and drinking it in the (hell) fire, wherein he will abide for all eternity; and whoever purposely throws himself from a mountain and kills himself will be in the hellfire, falling down into it, and abiding therein for all eternity.» (recorded by Bukhari) Al-Khater mentions an important point in relation to this hadith. The punishment mentioned here will be applied only to those who committed suicide intentionally while they were of sane mind.

People who suffer from severe depression or other mental illness may not be considered legally responsible, depending on the severity of H the disorder.11 Allah ( ) will judge them on the Day of Resurrection and send them to their appropriate destination. For this reason, one cannot justify the claim that everyone who commits suicide will be condemned to hell. Causes of mental illness Modern scientific theories of mental illness postulate that it has various causes, including biological factors (genetics or neurochemical imbalances in the brain), learning experiences, stressful life events, cognitive distortions, and so on. The social-cognitive model 11 al-Khater, A., 2001, Grief and Depression from an Islamic Perspective , London: Al-Firdous Ltd, pp. 26-27. of depression, for example, consists of 1. negative, stressful events interpreted through 2. a ruminating, pessimistic explanatory style, which creates 3. a hopeless, depressed state that 4. hampers the way the person thinks and acts, which then fuels more negative experiences, such as rejection. Some critics have noted that this cycle may coincide with depression but does not necessarily cause it.12 Islam recognizes that these factors may have an influence.

Some mental illnesses may be purely biological in nature or set off by a series of stressful life events, but the Islamic theory of mental illness emphasizes the concept of spiritual disease or death. In fact, many of today's mental illnesses most likely have their roots in this phenomenon. The soul is calling out in distress for its spiritual needs, but the call is not being answered. This does not necessarily imply that someone who suffers from mental illness is morally deficient, H but distance from Allah ( ) may increase the likelihood of such disorders. For example, a person whose eemaÃn is low may struggle to come up with explanations for stressful life events or may be more easily affected by the influence of the jinn.

Allah ( H) mentions the effects of turning away from Him: {And whoever turns away from My remembrance Ð indeed, he will have a depressed [difficult] life, and We will gather [raise] him on the Day of Resurrection blind.} (Qur'an 20: 124) Those who refuse to believe and who turn away from the remembrance of Allah will experience an arduous life. This is in reference to the many forms of difficulty that a human may face, such as depression, anxiety, grief and so on, as well as various stressful life events. Their weaknesses and desires may also overwhelm them, 12 Myers, 2007, pp. 668-669. H causing further distress. Due to their disbelief, Allah ( ) allows them to continue in their misguidance and misery to the point of selfdestruction, eventually ending up in the hellfire for eternity.

Ibn Katheer explained this verse as meaning: His life will be hard in this world. He will have no tranquility and no expanding of his breast (ease). Rather, his chest will be constrained and in difficulty due to his misguidance. Even if he appears to be in comfort outwardly and he wears whatever he likes, eats whatever he likes and lives wherever he wants, he will not be happy. For verily, his heart will not have pure certainty and guidance.

He will be in agitation, bewilderment and doubt. He will always be in confusion and a state of uncertainty. This is 13 from the hardship of life. In the case of spiritual death, those who persistently adhere to false beliefs and practices in their lives, due to their own choices, will have seals put over their hearts. This will lead to an existential vacuum and spiritual non-being.

People who live their lives without faith in Allah will lose touch with their own true selves. Allah ( ) H mentions: {And be not like those who forgot Allah, so He made them forget themselves...} (Qur'an 59: 19) He also said: {And whoever turns away from My remembrance Ð indeed, he will have a depressed [difficult] life, and We will gather [raise] him on the Day of Resurrection blind.} (Qur'an 20: 124) This weakening of faith may appear in the form of mental illness or distress. The next verses give further explanation for their distress: {He will say: My Lord, why have you raised me blind while I was [once] seeing? [Allah] will say: Thus did Our signs come to you, and 13 Ibn Kathir, 2000, Vol. 6, p. 406. you forgot [disregarded] them; and thus will you this day be forgotten.} (Qur'an 20: 125-126) One aspect of a lack of faith is to love something else more than Allah, the Exalted, the Almighty. Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyah wrote, regarding the consequences for those who take an object of love above Allah: For this person, it is Allah's way to turn the object of his love and everything that relates to it into a source of grief and sorrow, in return for having placed his own desires and the desires of those people who esteem or love him higher than his love of Allah. For Allah has decreed, as a part of destiny which cannot be turned back or repelled, that he who loves something other than Allah will surely be tormented by it; that one who fears someone other than Allah will come under his control; that one who involves himself with something to the exclusion of Allah will find it a source of grief; that one who prefers another to Allah will not be blessed therein; and that one who tries to please a fellow creature by anything displeasing to Allah will, without fail, bring Allah's anger upon himself.14 The Islamic theory also incorporates matters of the unseen H world, which includes jinn.

Disobedience of Allah ( ) leaves the door open for the jinn and Satan to easily prey on the human being. Through the working of magic, envy, whispering and even possession, the jinn may cause all sorts of psychological and social problems, including distress, anxiety and depression. Allah ( ) H mentions: {Man is not weary of supplication for good [things], but if evil touches him, he is hopeless and despairing.} (Qur'an 41: 49) {And whoever is blinded from remembrance of the Most Merciful Ð We appoint for him a devil, and he is to him a companion. And 14 Al-Jawziyyah, 2000, p. 6. indeed, they [devils] divert them from the way [of guidance] while they think that they are [rightly] guided.} (Qur'an 43: 36-37) This devil can wreak havoc with the psychological well-being of the individual, as we discussed in the section on Satan and the jinn. This phenomenon has been confirmed by scientific studies.

Faith healers in Saudi Arabia report that the most common psychological symptoms caused by the evil eye, magic, or jinn possession include anxiety, obsessions and fear of developing disease. Other psychological symptoms noted by the faith healers included insomnia, depressive ideas, hatred (mainly of a spouse or co-wife), estrangement (between spouses or co-wives), hyperactivity, seizure-like states, psychotic disturbance, altered consciousness, abnormal movements, somatic complaints, and 15 others. Religiosity and mental health In terms of scientific research, there has been an explosion of interest in recent years regarding the link between religiosity/ spirituality and mental health. Much of this research suggests a relationship between these variables, indicating that those who are more religious or spiritual tend to have better mental (and physical) health. In the area of mental health, more than five hundred studies have found a significant positive association between religiosity/ spirituality and better mental health and well-being.

This specifically includes less depression and faster recovery from depression, less anxiety, lower suicide rates and less substance abuse. Greater wellbeing encompasses more hope, optimism, purpose and meaning in 15 al-Habeeb, T. A., 2004, Pilot study of faith healers' views on the evil eye, jinn possession, and magic in Saudi Arabia, retrieved March 3, 2010 from http://www.daarussalaam.com/A-STRARAGIES/A15mass/09PilotStudy.pdf. life, greater marital satisfaction and stability, and higher levels of 16 social support. While most of this research has been conducted with Christian populations in the West, a recent literature review of a growing body of studies with Muslim populations suggests that religiosity/ 17 spirituality also benefits the mental health of Muslim adherents. This relationship encompasses a multitude of variables, including greater happiness, well-being, life satisfaction and optimism, and reduced likelihood of depression, anxiety, death anxiety, antisocial behaviour and suicide.

Basically, what this means is that Muslims who are religious/spiritual and practice their faith are healthier and happier. Studies have found, for example, that persons who are spiritual and view God as warm, caring, helpful and dependable are less likely to be lonely, depressed, or anxious. They also cope better with major life stressors (ranging from illness to war) and are less likely to abuse drugs. As this link is established, more and more people emphasize the role of spirituality and religion in providing not only curative potential for mental illness, but also preventive power as well. In H Islam, this understanding is fundamental to the nature of humankind and to success in this life.

The closer one is to Allah ( ), the more he or she increases in righteousness and elevates his or her existence. In a society faced with so many of these ills and lacking any form of spirituality, the connection between the two becomes readily apparent. Allah, the Exalted, the Almighty has provided the cure in the Qur'an, and it is available for every human being. Even those who suffer from mental illness can be relieved by maintaining hope 16 Handbook of Koenig, H. G., McCullough, M.

E., & Larson, D. B., 2001, Religion and Health, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 97-203. Koenig, H. G., 2008, Medicine, Religion, and Health: Where Science and Spirituality Meet, . West Conshohocken, PA: Templeton Foundation Press, pp. 68-81 17 .

Utz and Oman, forthcoming [2011] in Allah's mercy, returning to Him in repentance, and relying upon H Him for a cure. Allah ( ) mentions in the Qur'an the importance of guidance, because it is through guidance that the seeker finds the truth and the food that is necessary for the soul. {Whoever is guided is only guided for [the benefit of] his soul, and whoever errs only errs against it. No bearer of burdens will bear the burden of another, and never would We punish until We sent a messenger.} (Qur'an 17: 15) {Indeed, We sent down to you the book for the people of truth. So whoever is guided Ð it is for [the benefit of] his soul; and whoever goes astray only goes astray to its detriment...} (Qur'an 39: 41) {Say: O people, the truth has come to you from your Lord, so whoever is guided is only guided for [the benefit of] his soul, and whoever goes astray only goes astray [in violation] against it.} (Qur'an 10: 108) {So is one whose breast Allah has expanded to [accept] Islam and he is guided by a light from his Lord [like one whose heart rejects it?] Then woe to those whose hearts are hardened against the remembrance of Allah. Those are in manifest error.} (Qur'an 39: 22) Counselling and Psychotherapy P sychotherapy has been defined as: A formal process of interaction between two parties, each party usually consisting of one person but with the possibility that there may be two or more people in each party, for the purpose of amelioration of distress in one of the two parties relative to any or all of the following areas of disability or malfunction: cognitive functions (disorders of thinking), affective functions (suffering or emotional discomforts), or behavioral functions (inadequacy of behavior), with the therapist having some theory of personality's origins, development, maintenance and change along with some method of treatment logically related to the 1 theory and professional and legal approval to act as a therapist.

At least 250 different systems of psychotherapy have been noted 2 to exist, with possibly up to more than four hundred. Most psychotherapists do not adhere strictly to one single school of thought; instead they take an eclectic approach, in which they select from the variety of techniques those that are likely to be the most 1 Corsini, R.J., 2000, Introduction, in Corsini, R.J., & Wedding, D. (Eds.), Current Psychotherapies. Itasca, IL: F. E.

Peacock Publishers, Inc., p. 1. 2 Ibid., p. 10. appropriate and effective for a particular client. Psychologists who provide therapy have generally obtained a graduate degree (studying four or five years) in clinical or counselling psychology. The degree will be either a PhD (Doctor of Philosophy) or a Psy. D (Doctor of Psychology). The PhD degree focuses on training in research as well as diagnosis and therapy.

The Psy. D is an applied degree, emphasizing diagnosis and treatment. Clinical psychologists generally work with people suffering from a wide range of mental disorders, from adjustment problems to depression, from anxiety to schizophrenia. Counselling psychologists focus more on problems related to adjustment, life stress, and the like; they may concentrate on specific areas such as student, marriage, or family counselling. Psychiatrists are medical doctors who are licensed to prescribe medications and to treat physical causes of psychological disorders.

They may also provide psychotherapy as psychologists do. A psychiatrist has an MD degree and has completed three years of residency (after medical school) in a mental health facility. In some countries, though, psychologists who have received training are now allowed to prescribe medications. Unfortunately, most of the training available today for psychologists and psychiatrists is of a secular nature. Many professionals in the Muslim world have trained abroad and then returned to practice.

This often leads to various types of problems, since there may be a discrepancy between what the professional is offering through the counselling process and what the clients are expecting or hoping to receive. Mechanisms of action Before discussing the specific mechanisms of action, it should be noted that an essential variable within the psychotherapeutic process is the client's motivation or willingness to change. If this element is missing, it is difficult or impossible to make any progress, as most mental health professionals will attest. This requires that the client take responsibility for his or her behaviour and choices, and exert effort to make the necessary changes. This particular aspect is H actually referred to in the Qu'ran.

Allah ( ) says: {That is because Allah would not change a favour which He had bestowed upon a people until they change what is within themselves. And indeed, Allah is Hearing and Knowing.} (Qur'an 8: 53) This verse indicates that human beings have the ability to change their negative characteristics and to develop healthy personalities and behaviours. They have the potential to overcome weaknesses within themselves as well as, to some extent, environmental factors that may seem to block the way. This philosophy is an essential foundation for effective psychotherapeutic intervention. Some of the more common schools of psychotherapy include cognitive therapy, behaviour therapy, person-centred or humanistic therapy, psychoanalysis and existential psychotherapy.

Psychotherapy may occur on an individual basis, in a group setting, or in a family context. Regardless of the particular title or perspective taken, the vast majority of the theories are based upon a secular worldview, as discussed above. Psychotherapy is hypothesized to be effective for various reasons. Each school of psychotherapy will state what it presumes to be the mechanisms of action, but Corsini has outlined the elements that seem to be necessary for changing people. Cognitive factors: 1.

Universalization: clients improve when they realize that they are not alone, that others have similar problems, and that human suffering is universal; 2. Insight: growth occurs as clients come to understand themselves and others, and gain different perspectives on their own motives, thoughts, feelings, and behaviours; 3. Modelling: people learn from watching and imitating other people. Affective factors: 1. Acceptance: this reflects the sense of getting unconditional positive regard, especially from the therapist; 2.

Altruism: change can result from the recognition that one is the recipient of the love and care of the therapist or other members of the group, or from being the one who provides love and care to others, as well as feeling he or she is helping others; 3. Transference: identifies the emotional bond that occurs between the therapist and the client, or among clients in a group setting. Behavioural factors: 1. Reality testing: change becomes possible when clients experiment with new behaviours in the safety of therapy, receiving support and feedback from the therapist; 2. Ventilation: there is some value in `blowing off steam' through shouting, crying, or displaying anger in a context in which one can still feel accepted; 3.

Interaction: clients improve when they are able to openly admit that there is something wrong with themselves or their behaviour.3 3 Ibid., pp. 9-10. It is interesting to note that the authors summed these three factors up as, ªKnow thyself, love thy neighbour, and do good 4 works.'' The scientific naturalistic worldview of the secular approach is problematic for the clinical situation and, according to Richards and Bergin, poses insoluble problems for mental health practitioners and researchers. They state: Scientific naturalism provides an impoverished view of human nature upon which it is difficult to build theories of personality and therapeutic change. Scientific naturalism also constrains, biases, and ultimately forecloses many conceptual and clinical options that would otherwise be open to therapists and researchers. Finally, scientific naturalism conflicts with the worldviews of major theistic world religions, and thereby fails to provide a culturally sensitive psychotherapy framework for religious clients who seek assistance from mental health 5 professionals.

The secular psychotherapeutic approaches of modern psychology, while offering some relief for human suffering, fail to address the complexities of the soul and its spiritual needs. In criticizing these schools of thought, Badri states: It is not surprising, therefore, that these psychological schools [behaviorism, Freudian psychoanalysis, and neuropsychiatry] and their artificial oversimplification of complex cognitive activities and feelings, in spite of securing respect for many years by providing scientific explanations of human behavior, have failed to provide satisfactory results. The optimism of fifty years ago has now dissipated, and the social and psychological problems of Western societies are probably the only variables 4 Ibid. 5 Richards & Bergin, 2005, p. 41. that have surpassed economic inflation in their sharp increase. Their failure is not surprising since the psychology of humankind, with all its complex variables and spiritual aspects could never be reduced to the chemical and physical data of 6 laboratory experiments. H If we understand that the cause of mental distress and illness is spiritual in nature, resulting from a distancing from Allah ( ) and His commands, we can easily ascertain from whence may come the cure.

From the perspective of Islam, the ultimate goal of therapy is not simply to change thinking, emotion, or behaviour, but rather to have an impact upon the soul. This impact, in turn, will affect the other components of the human being. The foundation of any interventions will revolve around the spiritual development of the client. The focus on spiritual aspects will enhance the likelihood of effective and enduring outcomes. This is in contrast to secular approaches that focus on symptoms rather than addressing the primary cause, generally resulting in short-lived effects.

Religious or theological psychotherapy In mainstream Western psychology in recent years, there has been a growing recognition of the importance of religious and 7 spiritual topics and concerns in clinical practice. There has been a corresponding acknowledgment of the role of religion and spirituality in the psychotherapeutic process, and acceptance that it 8 can be an important part of the solution to psychological problems. 6 Badri, 2000, p. 5. 7 Richards & Bergin, 2005, pp. 6-7; Dein, S., & Loewenthal, K. M., 1998, Holy healing: The growth of religious and spiritual therapies, Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 1(2), pp. 85-89. 8 Pargament, K. I., Murray-Swank, N. A., & Tarakeshwar, N., 2005, An empirically based rationale for a spiritually integrated psychotherapy, Mental= Some of the researchers in this area have termed this integration of spiritual issues into the therapeutic process `theistic psychotherapy.' It is interesting to note that Islam is listed as one of the major world traditions that would be commensurate with this approach.

According to Richards and Bergin, the philosophical foundations of this approach include: Scientific theism: God is the ultimate controller of the universe, and humans can understand Him and the universe in a limited way. Scientific methods can discover some aspects of reality, but spiritual ways of knowing are also necessary. Theistic holism: Human beings are holistic spiritual beings, composed of an eternal soul or spirit that interacts with and influences other dimensions of reality (physical, cognitive, emotional, interpersonal, and cultural). Humans cannot be reduced to their biology, mind, or relationships. Agency: Human beings have moral agency and the ability to choose and regulate their behaviour.

Human behaviour has antecedents (biological and environmental) that limit their choices, but not their agency. Choices also have consequences. Moral universalism: There are universal moral principles or values that affect the health and psychological and spiritual development. The application may vary depending on time, context, and other competing values. Theistic relationism: Human beings are innately social and relational and can best be understood through studying their relationships with others and with God.

Altruism: Human beings often forego their own rewards for the welfare of others. Concepts such as responsibility, self-sacrifice and altruism are valued above personal gratification.9 =Health, Religion and Culture, 8(3), pp. 155-165. 9 Richards & Bergin, 2005, pp. 98-99. Some of the benefits of this particular theoretical approach to the practice of psychotherapy include: