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The conquest of Cyprus in 28 AH (649 CE) stands as a landmark in Islamic military history. It was the first major naval expedition undertaken by the Muslim state, marking the emergence of a new maritime power in the Mediterranean and ending centuries of unchallenged Byzantine dominance over eastern waters.
Since the earliest days of the Islamic conquests, the Muslim armies had been a land-based force. The Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) had foretold naval expeditions by his ummah. In a hadith recorded by al-Bukhari, Umm Haram bint Milhan narrated that the Prophet said, "The first army amongst my followers who will invade the sea will have all their sins forgiven." Umm Haram asked if she would be among them, and the Prophet confirmed she would be.
Cyprus held immense strategic importance. Situated between the Syrian coast and the Anatolian peninsula, the island served as a forward operating base for the Byzantine navy. From its harbors, Byzantine fleets could launch raids against Muslim-held coastal cities in Syria and Egypt. As long as Cyprus remained in Byzantine hands, the entire eastern Mediterranean coastline of the caliphate was vulnerable.
Muawiyah ibn Abi Sufyan, the governor of Syria appointed by Umar ibn al-Khattab, had long recognized the maritime threat. During Umar's caliphate, Muawiyah repeatedly requested permission to launch a naval campaign against Cyprus. Umar, cautious about the dangers of sea travel for his soldiers, consistently refused. He famously consulted Amr ibn al-As about the nature of the sea, and Amr's description of its perils convinced Umar to forbid any naval ventures.
When Uthman ibn Affan became caliph in 23 AH (644 CE), Muawiyah renewed his request. Uthman was more receptive but imposed a condition: participation must be entirely voluntary, and no soldier should be compelled to board the ships. With this permission secured, Muawiyah began assembling a fleet along the Syrian coast, drawing upon the shipbuilding expertise of the coastal populations of Acre, Tyre, and other port cities.
In 28 AH (649 CE), the Muslim fleet set sail from the ports of Greater Syria. The force included a substantial number of Companions of the Prophet, among them Abu Dharr al-Ghifari, Abu al-Darda, Ubadah ibn al-Samit, and his wife Umm Haram bint Milhan, fulfilling the Prophet's prophecy about her participation in the first naval expedition.
The fleet crossed the relatively short distance to Cyprus and landed on the island. The Byzantines on Cyprus, though possessing fortifications, were not prepared for a full-scale Muslim assault from the sea. Al-Baladhuri and al-Tabari both record that after initial engagements, the Cypriots chose to negotiate rather than face prolonged conflict.
The people of Cyprus agreed to a treaty under which they would pay an annual tribute of 7,200 dinars, the same amount they had been paying to the Byzantine emperor. In exchange, the Muslims would not station a permanent garrison on the island, and the Cypriots would retain their internal governance and religious practices. The treaty also stipulated that the Cypriots would not assist the Byzantines against the Muslims and would warn the Muslims of any Byzantine naval movements.
This arrangement effectively created a neutral status for Cyprus, standing between the two great powers. The terms reflected the Islamic principle of offering peace through treaty before resorting to prolonged military occupation.
During this expedition, Umm Haram bint Milhan fell from her mount while disembarking on the island and passed away. She was buried in Cyprus, and her grave became a known site. Her participation and death on this campaign fulfilled the Prophet's words recorded years earlier, serving as a confirmation of prophetic truth for the Muslims who witnessed it. Al-Bukhari and Muslim both preserve this narration.
The conquest of Cyprus demonstrated that the Muslim state could project power across the sea. This capability would prove essential in subsequent decades, leading to the Battle of the Masts (Dhat al-Sawari) in 34 AH (655 CE), where the Muslim navy defeated the Byzantine fleet decisively.
Cyprus was raided again in 33 AH (654 CE) when the Cypriots violated treaty terms by assisting the Byzantines. A Muslim garrison was briefly stationed on the island before the arrangement returned to a tributary model. For centuries afterward, Cyprus occupied a unique position as a shared protectorate between Muslim and Byzantine authority.
The expedition established a precedent for Muslim naval power that would eventually extend across the Mediterranean, from the coasts of North Africa to the shores of the Iberian Peninsula. What began with Muawiyah's fleet crossing to Cyprus grew into a naval tradition that reshaped the political geography of the medieval world.
For the Prophetic era, see the Seerah timeline.