The Seerah

Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib, the son of the chief of Quraysh and the father of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ, married Aminah bint Wahb of the Banu Zuhra clan in Mecca, approximately one year before the Prophet's birth in 570 CE. Aminah was considered the finest young woman of Quraysh in lineage and character. Their marriage was a union of two of the most noble families of the Quraysh, both descending from the Prophet Ibrahim's line through Ismail. According to Ibn Sa'd's Tabaqat, a luminous mark on Abdullah's face — which many women had hoped to receive through a son — disappeared the night before his wedding to Aminah, leading some scholars to infer it was the prophetic light. The marriage produced only one child: the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ.

In 570 CE, Abraha al-Ashram, the Abyssinian viceroy of Yemen, marched a massive army equipped with war elephants toward Mecca intending to destroy the Ka'bah and divert pilgrimage to his grand cathedral in Sana'a. As the army camped near Mecca, Allah sent flocks of birds (Ababeel) that bombarded the invaders with stones of baked clay (sijjeel), annihilating the entire force. The lead elephant, Mahmud, refused to advance toward the Ka'bah. The miraculous event is recorded in Surah al-Fil (105) and occurred the same year the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ was born, forever establishing the sanctity and divine protection of the Ka'bah.

Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib, the father of Prophet Muhammad ﷺ, died in Yathrib (Medina) at approximately 25 years of age while returning from a trade journey to Syria. He fell ill with a fever and remained with relatives from Banu Najjar for a month before passing away. He was buried in Medina. The Prophet was thus born an orphan, never having known his father — a reality referenced in Surah ad-Duha: 'Did He not find you an orphan and give you refuge?' Abdullah had been among the finest young men of Quraysh, known for his handsomeness and excellent character.

Prophet Muhammad ﷺ was born on a Monday, the 12th of Rabi al-Awwal in the Year of the Elephant (approximately 22 April 571 CE), in the house of his grandfather Abd al-Muttalib in Mecca. His mother Aminah reported seeing a light at his birth that illuminated the palaces of Syria. His father Abdullah had already died, making him an orphan from birth. He was initially cared for by his mother and grandfather. The name Muhammad (the Praised One) was chosen by Abd al-Muttalib, inspired by a vision, and the name Ahmad was given by his mother based on her own dream. His birth marked the advent of the final prophetic era.

Following the Arab custom of sending infants to the desert for healthier upbringing and the acquisition of pure Arabic speech, the infant Muhammad ﷺ was entrusted to Halimah bint Abi Dhu'ayb of the Banu Sa'd tribe near Ta'if. Halimah had initially hesitated to accept him because he was an orphan with no father to provide payment, but she agreed when no other infant was available. Immediately after accepting him, extraordinary blessings followed — her dried milk returned abundantly, her emaciated camel produced milk, and her flocks thrived. The young Muhammad ﷺ remained with Halimah for approximately four to five years in the desert.

While the young Muhammad ﷺ was approximately four years old and playing with other children among the Banu Sa'd, two angels appeared, laid him down, opened his chest, removed his heart, extracted a black clot described as the portion of Shaytan, washed the heart with Zamzam water in a golden basin, and restored it. The incident is authentically recorded in Sahih Muslim. Halimah, alarmed by the event and fearing harm had befallen him, promptly returned him to his mother Aminah in Mecca. This purification of his heart was divine preparation for his role as the final messenger. A second similar incident occurred during the Night Journey (Isra and Mi'raj).

Aminah bint Wahb, the mother of Prophet Muhammad ﷺ, died at al-Abwa on the road between Mecca and Medina while returning from a visit to her husband Abdullah's grave and her maternal relatives in Yathrib (Medina). The Prophet was only six years old when he witnessed his mother's death. The orphan was then placed under the care of his loving grandfather Abd al-Muttalib, the respected chief of Quraysh and custodian of Zamzam. This loss was the Prophet's first experience of profound personal grief. He later visited his mother's grave and wept, telling the companions: 'She is my mother, and I sought permission to pray for her forgiveness but was not permitted.'

Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim, the Prophet's grandfather and the chief of Quraysh, died in Mecca at approximately 82 years of age when the Prophet ﷺ was about eight years old. He had been the most respected man in Mecca — guardian of Zamzam, custodian of the Ka'bah, and protector of the Hijaz. On his deathbed, he entrusted the young Muhammad to his son Abu Talib, the boy's uncle, who would serve as his guardian and fierce protector for the next four decades. The Prophet later said that he had never seen anyone more honored than Abd al-Muttalib among his people.

At the age of twelve, Muhammad ﷺ accompanied his uncle Abu Talib on a trading caravan to Syria. At Busra (Bosra) in southern Syria, the Christian monk Bahira noticed the young boy and recognized signs of prophethood described in ancient scriptures — including a cloud shading him and a tree bowing toward him. Bahira examined his back and found the Seal of Prophethood between his shoulder blades. He advised Abu Talib to protect the child from the Jews and Romans, warning that the boy had a great future. Alarmed, Abu Talib cut the journey short and returned Muhammad to Mecca immediately.

The War of Fijar (Sacrilegious War) was a series of four battles fought between the Quraysh-allied Kinana tribes and the Qays Aylan tribes during the sacred months in and around the market of Ukaz near Ta'if, making the fighting sacrilegious. The young Muhammad ﷺ, approximately 20 years old, participated by collecting and handing arrows to his uncles but did not engage in direct combat. The war lasted several years before a peace treaty was negotiated. This experience gave the Prophet direct exposure to the devastating consequences of tribal warfare and deepened his desire for a society founded on justice — a desire later fulfilled by the Hilf al-Fudul pact.

After the War of Fijar, several Qurayshi clans formed a pact at the house of Abdullah ibn Jud'an to support the oppressed and ensure justice regardless of tribal affiliation. The young Muhammad participated and later said: 'I witnessed a pact in the house of Abdullah ibn Jud'an that was more beloved to me than a herd of red camels. If I were called to it in Islam, I would respond.' This pact became a model of pre-Islamic virtue that Islam affirmed.

Khadijah bint Khuwaylid, the prominent Meccan merchant, hired Muhammad ﷺ to lead her trade caravan to Syria, drawn by his renowned reputation for honesty (al-Amin). She sent her trusted servant Maysarah to accompany him. Muhammad proved an exceptional trader, earning double the usual profit on the journey. Maysarah witnessed extraordinary events — a monk in Busra identifying Muhammad as the final prophet, and a cloud providing shade while his companion was unshaded. These reports, combined with the Prophet's integrity and character, moved Khadijah deeply. The success of this journey led directly to her proposal of marriage, which the Prophet accepted.

At the age of 25, Muhammad ﷺ married Khadijah bint Khuwaylid, a distinguished and wealthy widow merchant of Quraysh who was approximately 40 years old. Khadijah had been profoundly impressed by his honesty, noble character, and the success he achieved leading her trade caravan to Syria. She proposed marriage through an intermediary, and the Prophet ﷺ accepted. The marriage was a partnership of deep love and mutual respect that lasted 25 years until Khadijah's death. She bore him all his children except Ibrahim: al-Qasim, Zaynab, Ruqayyah, Umm Kulthum, Fatimah, and Abdullah. The Prophet never took another wife during her lifetime.

When the Prophet ﷺ was approximately 35 years old, the Ka'bah was damaged by flooding and fire and the Quraysh undertook its reconstruction. A serious dispute arose over which tribe would have the honor of placing the sacred Black Stone (al-Hajar al-Aswad) back in its corner — tensions nearly erupted into bloodshed. The tribes agreed that the next person to enter the sacred area would arbitrate. The Prophet ﷺ entered and devised an elegant solution: he placed the stone on a cloth and had representatives of each clan hold an edge of the cloth, then set the stone in place himself. This wisdom averted civil war five years before prophethood.

In the years immediately before prophethood, Muhammad ﷺ regularly retreated to Cave Hira on Jabal al-Nur (the Mountain of Light), approximately three miles from Mecca. There he spent days and nights in solitary meditation (tahannuth), contemplating the creation of the heavens and earth and the deep falsehood of idol worship. His devoted wife Khadijah would send provisions to sustain him during these retreats. These periods of intense spiritual reflection and purification prepared his heart and soul for the momentous divine revelation that was soon to come. The cave, barely large enough for one person to sleep in, became the site of the most consequential event in human history.

In the month of Ramadan, 610 CE, the Angel Jibreel (Gabriel) appeared to Muhammad ﷺ in Cave Hira on Jabal al-Nur. He embraced the Prophet intensely three times, each time commanding 'Iqra!' (Read!). The first divine words revealed were the opening verses of Surah al-Alaq: 'Read in the name of your Lord who created — created man from a clinging substance. Read, and your Lord is the Most Generous.' This moment marked the beginning of the final prophethood and the Quran's revelation. The Prophet ﷺ returned to Khadijah trembling, saying: 'Cover me, cover me!' She comforted him, and they sought counsel from the Christian scholar Waraqah ibn Nawfal, who confirmed the prophecy.

After the first revelation, Muhammad ﷺ returned to Khadijah trembling. She comforted him with words that became legendary in Islamic history: 'By Allah, Allah will never disgrace you. You maintain ties of kinship, bear the burdens of the weak, help the destitute, honor guests, and stand by those in affliction.' She then took him to her elderly cousin Waraqah ibn Nawfal, a learned Christian scholar who had translated the scriptures into Arabic. Waraqah declared: 'This is the same Namus (Angel) who was sent to Musa.' He confirmed Muhammad's prophethood and warned of severe persecution ahead. Khadijah immediately believed without any hesitation, becoming the first person to accept Islam.

Following the first revelation, there was a period of pause (fatrah) in which no revelation descended, causing the Prophet ﷺ distress and anxiety. Then, as he was walking, he heard a voice from the sky and saw Jibreel seated on a chair between the heavens and earth. He rushed home and called for his family to cover him (daththiruni). In this state, Allah revealed the opening verses of Surah al-Muddaththir (74): 'O you who covers himself — arise and warn! And your Lord glorify. And your clothing purify. And uncleanliness avoid.' This surah issued the definitive command to begin the public prophetic mission, transforming Muhammad ﷺ from a private recipient of revelation into an active messenger calling humanity to God.

Surah al-Fatiha, 'The Opening,' was among the earliest complete surahs revealed. Known as Umm al-Quran (Mother of the Quran) and Umm al-Kitab (Mother of the Book), it is the most frequently recited passage in Islam, required in every unit of prayer. It encapsulates the essence of the Quran: praise of Allah, affirmation of His sovereignty, the Day of Judgment, the plea for guidance, and the straight path. The Prophet said: 'The prayer is not valid for one who does not recite al-Fatiha.'

For approximately three years following the first revelation, the Prophet ﷺ invited people to Islam quietly and privately, sharing the message with those he trusted. The first believers included Khadijah (his wife), Abu Bakr al-Siddiq (his closest companion), Ali ibn Abi Talib (his young cousin, approximately 10 years old), Zayd ibn Harithah (his freed slave and adopted son), and Uthman ibn Affan. Abu Bakr was exceptionally active, personally bringing many early converts to the faith, including al-Zubayr ibn al-Awwam, Abdur-Rahman ibn Awf, Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas, Talhah ibn Ubaydillah, and Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah. These early believers formed the foundational community of the ummah.

The house of al-Arqam ibn Abi al-Arqam al-Makhzumi on the slopes of Mount Safa in Mecca served as the first dedicated center of Islamic learning and assembly during the secret dawah period. The Prophet ﷺ gathered new converts there to recite Quran, teach prayer, strengthen their faith, and provide a safe space away from Quraysh surveillance. The house could accommodate around 40 people. Many notable companions accepted Islam within its walls or were taught there. Among the most famous is the conversion of Umar ibn al-Khattab, who came to the house intending harm but left having embraced Islam. The house stood as a symbol of Islamic community formation under persecution.

After approximately three years of secret preaching, Allah revealed the command: 'And warn your closest kindred' (26:214), followed by: 'So proclaim what you are commanded and turn away from the polytheists' (15:94). The Prophet ﷺ ascended Mount Safa and called out to the clans of Quraysh by name. When they gathered, he asked: 'If I told you that a cavalry was about to attack from behind this mountain, would you believe me?' They affirmed his reputation for truthfulness (al-Amin). He then proclaimed the message of tawhid and warned of punishment for disbelief. His uncle Abu Lahab responded with rage and hostility, prompting the revelation of Surah al-Masad (111), which exposed his opposition.

Following the public declaration of Islam, the Quraysh launched systematic persecution against Muslims who lacked tribal protection. Bilal ibn Rabah, an Abyssinian slave of Umayyah ibn Khalaf, was taken to the scorching Meccan desert, laid on his back with a massive rock on his chest, and tortured daily — yet he persisted saying 'Ahad, Ahad' (One, One). Abu Bakr purchased and freed him. Sumayyah bint Khayyat, the wife of Yasir, became the first martyr of Islam when Abu Jahl drove a spear through her. Her husband Yasir also died under torture. Ammar ibn Yasir was forced to utter words of disbelief but held fast in his heart. Allah revealed consolation: 'Except for one who is compelled while his heart is secure in faith' (16:106).

Al-Tufayl ibn Amr, a prominent poet and chief of the Daws tribe of southern Arabia, came to Mecca. The Quraysh warned him against listening to Muhammad, and he stuffed cotton in his ears. Despite this, he heard the Prophet reciting Quran near the Ka'bah and was deeply moved. He accepted Islam and returned to his tribe. When they initially rejected his preaching, he asked the Prophet to curse them, but the Prophet instead prayed: 'O Allah, guide Daws.' Eventually the entire tribe accepted Islam.

Hamza ibn Abd al-Muttalib, the Prophet's uncle and one of Mecca's most feared warriors and hunters, accepted Islam in approximately the sixth year of prophethood (615 CE). The immediate catalyst was his anger upon learning that Abu Jahl had insulted and physically struck the Prophet ﷺ near Mount Safa while the Prophet remained patient and silent. Hamza confronted Abu Jahl at the Ka'bah and struck him with his bow, publicly declaring his Islam. Though initially driven by tribal pride and protective instinct, Hamza's faith deepened into sincere conviction. His acceptance strengthened the Muslim community significantly, as he was a man of great physical and social power whom the Quraysh had previously held in high esteem.

In 615 CE, as Quraysh persecution of Muslims intensified, the Prophet ﷺ advised a group of believers to migrate to the Christian kingdom of Abyssinia (modern Ethiopia) and seek refuge with the Negus (an-Najashi), described as a just ruler under whom no one was oppressed. This first migration comprised approximately 15 people including Uthman ibn Affan and his wife Ruqayyah, the Prophet's daughter. They departed secretly by night. This historic migration established the precedent of hijrah — leaving one's homeland to preserve religious freedom. It was the first time in Islam that believers crossed an international boundary to seek refuge, and it demonstrated the Prophet's strategic wisdom in protecting his community.

Umar ibn al-Khattab, initially one of the fiercest opponents of Islam, set out to kill the Prophet but was redirected to his sister Fatimah's house where she and her husband were reciting Surah Ta-Ha. After striking his sister and seeing her bleed, he felt remorse and asked to read the verses. Moved by their beauty, he went to the Prophet at Dar al-Arqam and declared his shahada. The Prophet exclaimed 'Allahu Akbar' and the Muslims openly prayed at the Ka'bah for the first time.

A second, larger wave of approximately 83 men and 18 women migrated to Abyssinia under the leadership of Ja'far ibn Abi Talib. The Quraysh sent two emissaries — Amr ibn al-As and Abdullah ibn Abi Rabia — with gifts for the Negus and his bishops to demand the Muslims' extradition. When the Negus summoned the Muslims, Ja'far delivered his renowned speech describing pre-Islamic Arab society and recited verses from Surah Maryam about Isa and his mother. The Negus, moved to tears, declared that the difference between Christianity and Islam was no greater than 'this line' drawn on the ground. He refused to surrender the Muslims and returned the Qurayshi gifts.

The Quraysh imposed a comprehensive social and economic boycott on the clans of Banu Hashim and Banu al-Muttalib, drafting a document that banned marriage, trade, social interaction, and any dealing with the Prophet's clan and their supporters. The Muslims and their families were confined to the valley of Abu Talib (Shi'b Abi Talib) for approximately three years. Suffering was severe — children cried from hunger and people were reduced to eating leaves. Only during the Hajj season was outside contact permitted. The boycott eventually collapsed when several Qurayshi noblemen, troubled by its injustice, tore up the document — finding that termites had eaten the text, leaving only the opening phrase 'In Your Name, O Allah.'

Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib, the Prophet's uncle and protector for over 40 years, fell gravely ill. The Prophet visited him and pleaded: 'O uncle, say La ilaha ill-Allah, a statement with which I can defend you before Allah.' Abu Jahl and Abdullah ibn Abi Umayyah pressured Abu Talib not to abandon the religion of his father. He died saying he was on the religion of Abd al-Muttalib. The Prophet said: 'I will keep asking forgiveness for you unless I am forbidden.' Then Quran 9:113 was revealed prohibiting that.

Khadijah bint Khuwaylid, the Prophet's first wife and the first person to accept Islam, died in Mecca at approximately 65 years of age. She had supported the Prophet spiritually, emotionally, and financially for 25 years of marriage and 10 years of prophethood. Jibreel sent her salam from Allah and gave her glad tidings of a palace in Paradise of hollowed pearls where there would be no noise or fatigue. The Prophet never forgot her and Aisha later said she was never jealous of any wife as much as Khadijah.

The tenth year of prophethood (619 CE) became known as Aam al-Huzn (Year of Sorrow) after the Prophet ﷺ lost his two greatest protectors within weeks of each other. Khadijah bint Khuwaylid — his devoted wife of 25 years, the first believer, his emotional anchor, and his primary financial supporter — died in Ramadan. Weeks later, his uncle Abu Talib — who, despite never accepting Islam, had shielded the Prophet from Quraysh's worst violence through his tribal authority — also died. Their combined loss left the Prophet without his closest emotional confidante and without his political and social shield in Mecca. The Quraysh immediately intensified their hostility, emboldened by the removal of his protection.

After losing his protectors, the Prophet ﷺ traveled to Ta'if with Zayd ibn Harithah seeking support from the Thaqif tribe. The leaders rejected him and incited street urchins and slaves to stone him, causing his blessed feet to bleed. He took shelter in a garden and made his famous supplication: 'O Allah, to You alone I complain of my weakness.' Allah sent Jibreel with the angel of the mountains offering to crush the people between the two mountains, but the Prophet refused, hoping their descendants might accept Islam.

After the Prophet ﷺ was turned away from Ta'if and its people had stoned him, he needed tribal protection (jiwar) to safely re-enter Mecca. Under Arab custom, without the protection of a chieftain, a person could be attacked with impunity. Several tribal leaders declined before Mutim ibn Adi — a respected Quraysh elder and polytheist — agreed to extend his protection. Mutim and his sons escorted the Prophet ﷺ publicly into the Masjid al-Haram, fully armed. Mutim declared his protection before the Quraysh, and they honored it. This act of nobility from a non-Muslim was remembered by the Prophet ﷺ: after Badr, he said that had Mutim been alive and interceded for the prisoners, he would have released them all for his sake.

For several years before the Hijra, the Prophet ﷺ would seek out Arab tribal delegations visiting Mecca for pilgrimage season and present Islam to their leaders at Mina, Arafat, and the markets of Ukaz and Dhul-Majaz. He offered himself as a messenger whose message they should hear and shelter. Abu Lahab would follow him and warn the tribes to reject him. Nearly every major tribe — Kinda, Kalb, Banu Hanifah, Banu Amir — refused. One elder of Banu Amir told the Prophet: 'If you prevail, would leadership be for us?' — to which the Prophet replied that all matters rest with Allah alone. This persistent effort, year after year, ultimately bore fruit when six men from Khazraj of Medina accepted Islam at the First Pledge of Aqabah.

In 621 CE, the Prophet ﷺ was taken on the miraculous Night Journey (al-Isra) from Masjid al-Haram in Mecca to Masjid al-Aqsa in Jerusalem aboard al-Buraq, a heavenly mount. There he led all the prophets in prayer as their imam. He then ascended through the seven heavens (al-Mi'raj), meeting Ibrahim, Musa, Isa, Yahya, Idris, Harun, and Yusuf at their respective levels. He was brought to the divine presence where the five daily prayers were prescribed — reduced from the original fifty through Musa's repeated counsel to ask for reduction. The event is referenced in Surah al-Isra (17:1). When told of his journey, the Quraysh mocked him; Abu Bakr immediately believed without hesitation, earning the title al-Siddiq.

During the Hajj season of 621 CE, twelve men from Yathrib (Medina) — six from the Khazraj tribe — met the Prophet ﷺ at the mountain pass of Aqabah near Mina and pledged allegiance in what became known as Bay'at al-Aqabah al-Ula (First Pledge of Aqabah). They pledged not to associate partners with Allah, not to steal, not to commit unlawful sexual intercourse, not to kill their children, not to slander, and to obey the Prophet in all that is right. This pledge, similar in its clauses to the later Pledge of Women, contained no military obligations. It opened the door for Islam's rapid expansion in Medina, where enmity between the Aws and Khazraj tribes had prepared people for a unifying religious message.

Following the First Pledge of Aqabah, the Prophet ﷺ sent Mus'ab ibn Umayr — a young companion of noble Qurayshi origin who had sacrificed a life of wealth and luxury for Islam — to Medina as the first official ambassador and Quran teacher. Mus'ab stayed with As'ad ibn Zurarah and excelled at his mission through patient, wise, and gentle dawah. He converted many prominent figures including Usayd ibn Hudayr and Sa'd ibn Mu'adh, both chiefs of the Aws tribe. Through a single sitting with Mus'ab, entire neighborhoods embraced Islam. By the next Hajj season, more than 70 Muslims from Medina came to Mecca for the Second Pledge of Aqabah, a testament to Mus'ab's extraordinary effectiveness.

During the next Hajj, 73 men and 2 women from Medina met the Prophet ﷺ secretly at Aqabah at night. They pledged to protect him as they would protect their own families, to fight for Islam, and to give him sanctuary in Medina. The Prophet appointed twelve representatives (naqibs) from among them. This military pledge, known as Bay'at al-Harb, paved the way for the Hijrah. Al-Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib attended as a witness though he had not yet accepted Islam.

As Muslims began their migration to Medina, the Quraysh leadership convened an emergency council at Dar al-Nadwah — the traditional Meccan assembly hall — to decide the Prophet's ﷺ fate. Various options were debated: imprisonment, exile, or assassination. Abu Jahl proposed the lethal solution: that one young warrior from each clan simultaneously strike the Prophet, spreading blood-guilt across all clans so that Banu Hashim could not retaliate against any single tribe. The council agreed. Allah revealed their plot to the Prophet: 'And remember when those who disbelieved plotted against you to restrain you, kill you, or evict you' (8:30). That night, the Prophet asked Ali ibn Abi Talib to sleep in his bed as a decoy while he and Abu Bakr departed.

The Prophet ﷺ and Abu Bakr departed Mecca at night while Ali slept in the Prophet's bed as a decoy. They hid in Cave Thawr south of Mecca for three days while Quraysh searched for them. Abu Bakr's daughter Asma brought food, and his son Abdullah brought intelligence. Their guide Abdullah ibn Urayqit led them along an unfamiliar coastal route. When Abu Bakr feared the pursuers, the Prophet said: 'Do not grieve, indeed Allah is with us.' This migration marks the start of the Islamic calendar.

After an eight-day journey from Mecca, the Prophet ﷺ arrived at the settlement of Quba on the outskirts of Medina on the 8th of Rabi al-Awwal, 1 AH (September 622 CE). He stayed with Kulthum ibn al-Hidm for approximately four days, during which he laid the foundation of Masjid Quba — the first mosque built in Islamic history. He personally carried and placed stones in its walls alongside the companions. The Prophet later said that praying two rak'ahs in Masjid Quba is equivalent to performing an Umrah. The Quran honored this mosque as one 'founded on righteousness from the first day' (9:108), declaring it more worthy of standing in than the Masjid al-Dirar built by the hypocrites.

On his way from Quba to Medina on the 12th of Rabi al-Awwal, 1 AH (Friday, 622 CE), the Prophet ﷺ stopped in the valley of Ranuna at the settlement of Banu Salim ibn Awf. It was a Friday (Jumu'ah), and approximately 100 Muslims had gathered there. The Prophet ﷺ dismounted, performed the ablution, and led the very first Jumu'ah prayer in Islamic history. He delivered a khutbah (sermon) in which he praised Allah, testified to His unity and Muhammad's prophethood, and reminded the community of death and the life of the Hereafter. This event established the Friday congregational prayer as a cornerstone of the Muslim community that endures to this day.

The Prophet ﷺ entered Medina to a jubilant reception. The Ansar (Helpers) came out singing 'Tala'al-Badru Alayna' (The full moon has risen upon us). Every clan invited him to stay with them, but the Prophet let his camel walk freely, saying he would settle where it knelt. The camel stopped at a plot belonging to two orphans of Banu Najjar. The Prophet purchased the land and began building Masjid al-Nabawi (the Prophet's Mosque), marking the foundation of the first Islamic community.

The Prophet ﷺ and the companions purchased the plot of land in Medina where his camel had knelt — belonging to two orphan boys, Sahl and Suhayl of Banu Najjar — and began building the mosque. The Prophet worked alongside the companions, personally carrying adobe bricks and chanting: 'O Allah, there is no good except the good of the Hereafter.' The original mosque was a simple rectangular structure with walls of mud brick and a roof of palm branches and leaves. Two prayer directions (qiblahs) were incorporated — one toward Jerusalem (as it was before the Qiblah change) and one facing Mecca. Adjacent to the mosque, small rooms (hujurat) were built for the Prophet's household. This mosque became the model for Islamic worship worldwide.

Shortly after arriving in Medina, the Prophet ﷺ established the institution of al-Mu'akhah (Brotherhood) between the Muhajirun (Meccan emigrants) and the Ansar (Medinan helpers). He paired 45 Muhajirun with 45 Ansar as brothers — creating bonds so strong that initially these pairs inherited from each other. Abu Bakr was paired with Kharijah ibn Zayd; Umar ibn al-Khattab with Itban ibn Malik; Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf with Sa'd ibn al-Rabi. This unprecedented social program dissolved tribal barriers, provided the homeless Muhajirun with housing, sustenance, and support, and created a unified community. The Ansar's generosity was legendary — some offered half their property and even proposed to share their wives through divorce so a Muhajir brother could remarry.

Shortly after establishing himself in Medina, the Prophet ﷺ drafted a comprehensive document governing relations between all groups in the city — the Muhajirun, the Ansar tribes (Aws and Khazraj and their sub-clans), and the Jewish tribes (Banu Qaynuqa, Banu Nadir, Banu Qurayza). The Constitution of Medina (Sahifat al-Medina) established: one unified community (ummah) while preserving each tribe's internal autonomy; collective defense against external aggression; the Prophet ﷺ as the final arbiter of disputes; the prohibition of aiding enemies of the compact; and the obligation to ransom war captives. This founding document — arguably the world's first written constitutional covenant — created the first Islamic city-state and governed Medina's multi-religious, multi-tribal population.

The Muslims discussed how to call people to prayer, considering bells (Christian) and horns (Jewish) before Abdullah ibn Zayd reported a dream in which a man taught him the words of the adhan. Umar confirmed he had seen a similar vision. The Prophet ﷺ recognized the dream as true and instructed Bilal ibn Rabah, whose powerful voice was known throughout Medina, to make the call. Bilal thus became the first muezzin of Islam, his voice ringing out over Medina five times daily.

Surah al-Baqarah (The Cow), the longest surah in the Quran at 286 verses, was revealed primarily in Medina during the first two years after the Hijrah. It addresses the new Muslim community's fundamental needs: legislation on prayer, fasting, zakat, Hajj, marriage, divorce, trade, and debt; the change of Qiblah from Jerusalem to Mecca; the story of Banu Israil and their covenant with Allah; the battles of Badr and Talut (Saul); the nature of hypocrites; and Ayat al-Kursi, the greatest verse of the Quran. The Prophet ﷺ said: 'Do not make your houses into graveyards — indeed Shaytan flees from the house in which Surah al-Baqarah is recited.'

For about 16 or 17 months after the Hijrah, Muslims prayed facing Jerusalem (Bayt al-Maqdis). The Prophet ﷺ yearned to face the Ka'bah, and Allah revealed: 'We have certainly seen the turning of your face toward the heaven. So We will surely turn you to a qiblah with which you will be pleased. Turn your face toward al-Masjid al-Haram' (2:144). The change occurred mid-prayer at Masjid al-Qiblatayn, where the congregation turned from Jerusalem to Mecca. This became a test of faith and obedience.

In 2 AH (624 CE), the obligation of fasting the month of Ramadan was prescribed for the Muslim community, approximately 18 months after the Hijrah to Medina. The revelation came in Surah al-Baqarah: 'O you who believe, decreed upon you is fasting as it was decreed upon those before you — that you may become righteous' (2:183). Muslims had previously observed voluntary fasts including the fast of Ashura (10th of Muharram). The new obligation designated the entire month of Ramadan as a communal fast from dawn to sunset. The verses also established the exemptions for the ill and travelers, the expiation for those who break the fast without excuse, and affirmed that Ramadan is the month the Quran was revealed.

The obligatory annual almsgiving (Zakat) was formally prescribed in Medina as one of the five pillars of Islam. The Quran paired zakat with prayer (salah) repeatedly, emphasizing their inseparability: 'Establish prayer and give zakat' (2:43, 2:110, and numerous other verses). Zakat was set at specific rates on various categories of wealth — 2.5% on gold, silver, and trade goods held for one lunar year (nisab); fixed rates on livestock and agricultural produce. The institution created a structured system of wealth redistribution, providing for the poor, travelers in need, those in debt, and those working to free themselves from slavery. The Prophet ﷺ appointed collectors (usul) to gather and distribute zakat throughout the Muslim territories.

Ayat al-Kursi (The Verse of the Throne), Quran 2:255, is among the greatest verses of the Quran as confirmed by the Prophet ﷺ himself in an authentic hadith recorded in Sahih Muslim: when asked which verse was greatest, he confirmed it was Ayat al-Kursi. The verse declares the absolute sovereignty, living and self-sustaining nature of Allah, His limitless knowledge spanning all that is in the heavens and earth, the inability of any intercessor to act without His permission, and His Throne encompassing the heavens and earth without fatigue. The Prophet ﷺ taught that reciting it at night protects the believer until morning, and it is recited as protection and supplication in Islamic daily life and after every obligatory prayer.

Uthman ibn Maz'un was among the earliest converts and one of the first emigrants to both Abyssinia and Medina. He was the first Muhajir to die in Medina and the first to be buried in the cemetery of al-Baqi'. The Prophet ﷺ kissed his forehead as he lay dead and wept. He placed a stone marker on his grave, saying: 'So that I may bury beside him those of my family who die.' His death established al-Baqi' as the cemetery of the Muslim community.

The first major military encounter between 313 Muslims and approximately 1,000 Qurayshi fighters at the wells of Badr. Despite being outnumbered three to one, the Muslims achieved a decisive victory with divine assistance: 'Remember when you asked help of your Lord, and He answered you: I will reinforce you with a thousand angels' (8:9). Seventy Quraysh were killed, including Abu Jahl, and 70 were captured. Fourteen Muslims were martyred. This battle was the defining turning point for the nascent Muslim state.

Ruqayyah, the Prophet's daughter and wife of Uthman ibn Affan, died in Medina during the Battle of Badr. She had been gravely ill, and Uthman stayed behind to care for her on the Prophet's orders. News of the Muslim victory at Badr reached Medina on the same day as her burial. The Prophet later gave his other daughter Umm Kulthum in marriage to Uthman, earning him the title 'Dhun-Nurayn' (Possessor of Two Lights) for marrying two daughters of the Prophet.

The Banu Qaynuqa, a Jewish tribe in Medina, violated the Constitution of Medina by provoking hostilities against the Muslims shortly after the Battle of Badr. The immediate cause was an incident in the marketplace in which a Jewish goldsmith exposed a Muslim woman's clothing and a Muslim man killed the goldsmith in her defense, leading to a chain of violence. The Prophet ﷺ besieged the tribe in their fortresses for 15 days until they surrendered. Their ally Abdullah ibn Ubayy ibn Salul, chief of the Medinan hypocrites, interceded on their behalf and the Prophet ﷺ accepted his intercession, sparing their lives. The Banu Qaynuqa were expelled from Medina, taking their possessions and tools of trade to Syria.

Fatimah bint Muhammad ﷺ, the youngest and most beloved of the Prophet's daughters, was married to Ali ibn Abi Talib in 2 AH (624 CE) following the Battle of Badr. Ali had loved Fatimah and sought permission from the Prophet to marry her; the Prophet asked if he had anything for a dowry. Ali offered his iron coat of armor, which the Prophet accepted. The wedding was a simple celebration — the companions pooled resources for the modest feast, and the Prophet personally prayed over the couple and gave his blessings. This marriage produced the Prophet's grandsons Hasan and Husayn and his granddaughters Zaynab and Umm Kulthum. Their offspring constitute the Ahl al-Bayt.

Al-Hasan ibn Ali was born in Medina in 3 AH (625 CE), the firstborn son of Ali ibn Abi Talib and Fatimah bint Muhammad ﷺ, making him the Prophet's first grandson. The Prophet ﷺ received the news with great joy, performed the adhan in the baby's right ear and iqamah in his left, chewed a date and rubbed its juice on the infant's palate (tahnik), named him al-Hasan, shaved his head, and gave silver equal in weight to the hair in charity. Al-Hasan inherited the Prophet's noble face and upper body. He later became the fifth Caliph of Islam, famously abdicating to Muawiyah in 41 AH to prevent civil war among Muslims — earning the Prophet's praise as a sayyid (master) through whom Allah would reconcile two large factions of Muslims.

The Quraysh returned with 3,000 fighters led by Abu Sufyan to avenge Badr. The Prophet positioned 700 Muslims at the foot of Mount Uhud with 50 archers on Aynayn hill, ordering them not to leave. The Muslims initially prevailed, but most archers abandoned their post to collect spoils. Khalid ibn al-Walid's cavalry attacked from behind, causing chaos. The Prophet was wounded in his face and a rumor spread that he was killed. Seventy Muslims were martyred, including Hamza ibn Abd al-Muttalib, whose body was mutilated by Hind bint Utbah.

Hamza ibn Abd al-Muttalib, the Prophet's uncle and the 'Lion of Allah,' was martyred at Uhud. Wahshi ibn Harb, an Abyssinian slave, killed him with a javelin throw, having been promised freedom by Hind bint Utbah if he killed Hamza to avenge her father at Badr. Hind mutilated Hamza's body, chewing his liver. When the Prophet saw his uncle's body, he wept deeply and said: 'Were it not that Safiyyah would grieve, I would have left him until Allah gathered him from the bellies of birds and beasts.'

The morning after the Battle of Uhud, despite the wounds suffered by the Muslim army, Allah revealed: 'Those who responded to Allah and the Messenger after injury had struck them' (3:172). The Prophet ﷺ called on the same companions who had fought at Uhud to pursue the Quraysh — none were to come except those who had been present at Uhud. The Muslims marched to Hamra al-Asad, approximately eight miles south of Medina. A man named Ma'bad al-Khuzai — sympathetic to the Prophet though not yet Muslim — warned Abu Sufyan that the Muslims were regrouped and advancing in force. Abu Sufyan and the Quraysh, fearing further battle, abandoned their plan to attack Medina and returned to Mecca. The expedition demonstrated that Uhud had not broken Muslim resolve.

Al-Husayn, the second grandson of the Prophet ﷺ, was born to Ali and Fatimah. The Prophet performed the aqiqah and named him, as he had done with al-Hasan. The Prophet said of both grandsons: 'These two sons of mine are the leaders of the youth of the people of Paradise.' He once interrupted a sermon, descending from the pulpit to pick up al-Husayn who had stumbled while walking toward him, then returned to the pulpit with al-Husayn in his arms.

The Banu Nadir, a powerful Jewish tribe living approximately two miles south of Medina, were expelled in 4 AH (625 CE) after conspiring to assassinate the Prophet ﷺ. When the Prophet visited their settlement with companions to settle a blood money matter, Banu Nadir leaders secretly plotted to drop a millstone on him from above while he sat against a wall. The Prophet was divinely warned and departed. He then gave them ten days to leave Medina. Abdullah ibn Ubayy (the chief hypocrite) secretly promised military support that never materialized. After 15 days of siege, Banu Nadir accepted terms and departed to Khaybar, taking their wealth and possessions. Their departure and the fate of their date groves is referenced in Surah al-Hashr (59).

The prohibition of alcohol was revealed in stages. First, Allah mentioned that there was sin and benefit in wine but the sin was greater (2:219). Then Muslims were told not to approach prayer while intoxicated (4:43). Finally, the decisive prohibition came: 'O you who have believed, indeed intoxicants, gambling, stone altars, and divining arrows are but defilement from the work of Shaytan, so avoid it' (5:90). When this verse was announced, the companions immediately poured out all their wine in the streets of Medina.

Tribes of Adal and Qarah came to the Prophet ﷺ requesting teachers to be sent to educate their people. Ten companions were dispatched, led by Asim ibn Thabit al-Ansari. When they reached the well of Raji' near Hudhail territory, they were betrayed: a large force of Banu Lahyan surrounded them. The companions refused to surrender. Asim ibn Thabit and six others were killed fighting. Three surrendered on an oath of safety: two were sold to the Quraysh and executed — Khubayb ibn Adi and Zayd ibn al-Dathinnah. Khubayb composed moving lines of poetry before his martyrdom, and the Prophet ﷺ said of Asim that he was protected even in death by Allah, as bees shielded his body from desecration.

Abu Bara Amir ibn Malik visited the Prophet ﷺ and suggested sending teachers to Najd. The Prophet dispatched seventy of the best Quran-memorizing companions — among the finest scholars of the early Muslim community — under the leadership of al-Mundhir ibn Amr al-Ansari. When they reached the well of Bir Ma'unah, Amir ibn al-Tufayl (Abu Bara's nephew) betrayed the mission and mobilized the surrounding tribes. The companions were surrounded and massacred almost entirely; only Amr ibn Umayyah al-Damri survived. The Prophet ﷺ was profoundly grieved at their loss — he made continuous qunut (supplication of distress) in every prayer for a month, calling upon Allah against those who perpetrated the massacre: Banu Usayyah, Ri'l, and Dhakwan.

The expedition against the Banu al-Mustaliq (also known as Banu Khuza'ah) took place in 5 or 6 AH (627 CE) when intelligence reached the Prophet ﷺ that the tribe was gathering forces under their chief al-Harith ibn Abi Dirar to attack Medina. The Muslims marched and engaged them at the Well of al-Muraysi, achieving a swift and decisive victory. Among the captives was Juwayriyah bint al-Harith, the chief's daughter, whom the Prophet married — leading to the release of all Banu al-Mustaliq captives by the companions out of respect for their new kinship with the Prophet's household. The expedition is also significant as the Incident of Ifk (the slander against Aisha) occurred during the return journey.

After a military expedition, Aisha was accidentally left behind when the army moved camp at night. She was found and escorted back by Safwan ibn al-Mu'attal. The chief hypocrite Abdullah ibn Ubayy spread a vile accusation against Aisha's honor. For an entire month, the Prophet ﷺ and the community endured this trial. Then Allah revealed ten verses in Surah an-Nur (24:11-20) completely exonerating Aisha and establishing that false accusation of chaste women requires four witnesses, with flogging for those who cannot produce them.

The verse of hijab was revealed in the fifth year of Hijrah, commanding the wives of the Prophet to speak to men from behind a screen and later extended modesty guidelines to all believing women. The fuller commandment came in Surah al-Ahzab: 'O Prophet, tell your wives and your daughters and the women of the believers to bring down over themselves their outer garments' (33:59). Surah an-Nur also provided detailed guidance on lowering the gaze and covering adornments. These verses established Islamic norms of modesty.

A grand coalition of 10,000 fighters, organized by Huyayy ibn Akhtab of Banu Nadir and led by Abu Sufyan, besieged Medina. On Salman al-Farsi's suggestion, the Muslims dug a trench across the northern approaches, a tactic unknown in Arabia. The siege lasted nearly a month. The Prophet endured severe hunger, tying stones to his stomach. Nu'aym ibn Mas'ud, a secret convert, sowed distrust between the coalition and Banu Qurayza. A fierce storm finally scattered the confederate camp, and they withdrew in disarray.

Immediately after the Battle of the Trench, the Prophet marched against Banu Qurayza, who had broken their treaty by conspiring with the Confederates to attack the Muslims from within Medina during the siege. After a 25-day siege, they surrendered and asked for Sa'd ibn Mu'adh, their former ally, to judge their fate. Sa'd ruled according to the Torah's own law for treaty-breakers: the men were executed, and the women and children were taken as captives. Sa'd died shortly after from his battle wound.

Sa'd ibn Mu'adh, chief of the Aws tribe and one of the most prominent Ansar, died from a wound he received during the Battle of the Trench. He had prayed to Allah not to die until the matter of Banu Qurayza was settled, and passed away shortly after judging their case. The Prophet ﷺ said: 'The Throne of the Most Merciful shook at the death of Sa'd ibn Mu'adh.' Seventy thousand angels attended his funeral. Despite his large frame, his bier was remarkably light, which companions noted.

Zaynab bint Jahsh had been married to Zayd ibn Harithah, the Prophet's adopted son, at the Prophet's own arrangement. The marriage was unhappy and Zayd divorced her. Allah then commanded the Prophet to marry Zaynab to abolish the pre-Islamic prohibition against marrying the ex-wife of an adopted son: 'So when Zayd had no longer any need for her, We married her to you' (33:37). This marriage was directly performed by divine decree and abolished the legal fiction that adopted sons were biological sons.

The Prophet ﷺ led 1,400 Muslims to Mecca for Umrah in ihram, with no intention of war. At Hudaybiyyah, the Quraysh blocked their path. After negotiations, a ten-year peace treaty was signed. Its terms appeared unfavorable: Muslims would return without performing Umrah that year, any Qurayshi who fled to Medina must be returned, but not vice versa. Umar was deeply troubled, but the Quran declared it 'a manifest victory' (48:1). The peace allowed Islam to spread rapidly without military barriers.

During the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah negotiations in 628 CE, a rumor spread that Uthman ibn Affan, who had been sent as the Prophet's ﷺ emissary to Mecca, had been killed. In response, the Prophet sat beneath an acacia tree and called all 1,400 companions to renew their pledge of allegiance — pledging to fight to the death, not to flee, and to support him completely. This pledge became known as Bay'at al-Ridwan (The Pledge of Satisfaction) because Allah expressed His satisfaction with those who made it in Surah al-Fath (48:18): 'Allah was pleased with the believers when they pledged allegiance to you under the tree.' Uthman was later found to be alive and unharmed.

Following the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah in 628 CE, the Prophet ﷺ dispatched letters to the rulers of major world powers, inviting them to Islam. Eight letters are historically confirmed: to Heraclius (Byzantine Emperor), Chosroes II (Sassanid Persian Emperor), the Negus Ashama of Abyssinia, Muqawqis (Governor of Egypt), Mundhir ibn Sawa (Governor of Bahrain), al-Harith ibn Abi Shimr (Ghassanid King), Hawdhah ibn Ali (Governor of Yamama), and the rulers of Oman. Heraclius reportedly acknowledged the Prophet's truthfulness but feared losing his kingdom. Chosroes tore up the letter in rage, prompting the Prophet to predict Persia's dissolution. The Negus accepted Islam. This unprecedented diplomatic initiative established Islam's universal mission.

The Prophet ﷺ marched with 1,600 Muslims against the Jewish fortress complex of Khaybar, whose inhabitants had been organizing military coalitions against the Muslims. The fortresses fell one by one over several weeks. Ali ibn Abi Talib distinguished himself by carrying the gate of the fortress after the Prophet said: 'Tomorrow I will give the banner to a man who loves Allah and His Messenger, and whom Allah and His Messenger love.' After the conquest, the Jews were allowed to remain and farm the land, paying half their harvest as tribute.

After the conquest of Khaybar in 628 CE, approximately 16 ships carrying the Abyssinian emigrants returned to Medina, most of them having lived in Abyssinia for over a decade. Among the returnees was Ja'far ibn Abi Talib, the Prophet's cousin and the leader of the emigrant community, who had distinguished himself before the Negus. The Prophet ﷺ was filled with joy upon seeing Ja'far, embraced him, kissed him between the eyes, and declared: 'I do not know which delights me more — the conquest of Khaybar or the arrival of Ja'far.' Also among the returnees was Abu Musa al-Ashari and his relatives from the Ashari tribe of Yemen. The reunion marked the end of the Abyssinian chapter of early Islamic history.

In Dhul-Qadah 7 AH (629 CE), the Prophet ﷺ led approximately 2,000 Muslims in the Umrat al-Qadiyya (the Compensatory Umrah), fulfilling the treaty provision agreed at Hudaybiyyah that the Quraysh would vacate Mecca for three days to allow the Muslims to perform Umrah. The Quraysh watched from the surrounding hills as the Muslims circled the Ka'bah, performed sa'i between Safa and Marwa, and shaved their heads. The Prophet ﷺ married Maymunah bint al-Harith during this stay. The sight of the Muslims performing tawaf moved several prominent Qurayshis to accept Islam, including Khalid ibn al-Walid and Amr ibn al-As. After three days, the Prophet ﷺ honored the treaty and departed Mecca.

Khalid ibn al-Walid, the brilliant military commander who had turned the tide at the Battle of Uhud by exploiting the archers' mistake, accepted Islam in Safar 8 AH (629 CE) alongside Amr ibn al-As and Uthman ibn Talha. After the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, Khalid felt a growing sense that the Prophet ﷺ was delivering truth. His brother al-Walid, already a Muslim, had written urging him to accept Islam. Khalid traveled to Medina, was received warmly by the Prophet ﷺ, and declared his shahada. The Prophet told him: 'I have hoped that Allah would guide you to something that is more worthy of you.' He was given the title Sayf Allah al-Maslul (The Drawn Sword of Allah) and became one of Islam's greatest military commanders.

The Prophet sent 3,000 fighters to confront the Ghassanids and their Byzantine allies who had killed his envoy al-Harith ibn Umayr. He appointed three commanders in sequence: Zayd ibn Harithah, Ja'far ibn Abi Talib, and Abdullah ibn Rawahah. All three were martyred in succession. Ja'far fought holding the banner until both his hands were severed, earning the title 'The Flying One' (Dhu al-Janahayn). Khalid ibn al-Walid took command and skillfully withdrew the army against a force of 200,000. Their sacrifice and Khalid's tactical genius in saving the army from annihilation cemented this battle as one of the most remarkable military feats in early Islamic history.

The Quraysh violated the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah in 8 AH (630 CE) when their allied tribe, the Banu Bakr, attacked the Banu Khuza'ah — the Muslim-allied tribe — at night near Mecca, killing many of them while the Quraysh provided weapons and some fighters. The Banu Khuza'ah sent a delegation to Medina pleading for the Prophet's ﷺ help and citing the treaty. The Prophet declared: 'I am your ally in what you are ally.' He immediately began preparations for the largest military expedition in Islamic history: the march on Mecca. Abu Sufyan rushed to Medina to seek a renewal of the treaty but was refused by the Prophet. This breach of the treaty directly caused and fully justified the subsequent Conquest of Mecca.

The Prophet ﷺ marched on Mecca with 10,000 Muslims, the largest Muslim army assembled to that point. Abu Sufyan accepted Islam on the eve of the conquest after seeing the vast Muslim camp. The city was taken with virtually no bloodshed, fulfilling the Prophet's strategy of overwhelming force to prevent resistance. He entered the Ka'bah, destroyed the 360 idols saying 'Truth has come and falsehood has vanished' (17:81), and declared a general amnesty. Even his bitterest enemies like Hind bint Utbah were forgiven.

Shortly after Mecca's conquest, the Hawazin and Thaqif tribes assembled 20,000 warriors at Hunayn valley. The 12,000-strong Muslim army, their largest yet, was ambushed in a narrow pass at dawn. Most fled in panic, but the Prophet stood firm on his mule calling: 'I am the Prophet, there is no lie! I am the son of Abd al-Muttalib!' A core of companions rallied around him, and the tide turned decisively. The Quran noted: 'On the day of Hunayn when your great number pleased you, but it did not avail you' (9:25).

After the Battle of Hunayn, the Prophet ﷺ pursued the defeated Hawazin remnants to the fortified city of Ta'if, stronghold of the Thaqif tribe. The Muslims besieged the city for approximately 18 to 40 days (reports differ) but were unable to breach its defenses. The Thaqif fought from their walls using catapults and volleys of arrows, inflicting casualties. The Prophet ultimately lifted the siege and departed, remarking: 'We are returning, if Allah wills — and tomorrow we will make war.' Some companions urged him to invoke Allah's curse against the Thaqif; instead he supplicated: 'O Allah, guide Thaqif and bring them to us.' The Thaqif tribe subsequently sent a delegation the following year and embraced Islam, fulfilling this prayer.

The Prophet distributed the massive war spoils from Hunayn at Ji'ranah. He gave generously to the newly converted Quraysh chiefs (mu'allafat al-qulub, those whose hearts were being reconciled) to strengthen their Islam. The Ansar were troubled that they received less. The Prophet addressed them: 'Are you not satisfied that people go home with sheep and camels while you go home with the Messenger of Allah?' The Ansar wept and replied: 'We are satisfied with the Messenger of Allah as our share.'

The Prophet ﷺ led 30,000 Muslims on the longest and most difficult expedition, marching to Tabuk near the Byzantine frontier in the scorching heat of summer. Reports indicated a massive Byzantine force was assembling to invade Arabia. The hypocrites made excuses to stay behind, and three sincere companions (Ka'b ibn Malik, Murarah ibn al-Rabi, Hilal ibn Umayyah) were boycotted for 50 days for their failure to join without excuse. No battle occurred as the Byzantine forces withdrew, but the expedition demonstrated Muslim military reach.

Ka'b ibn Malik, Murarah ibn al-Rabi, and Hilal ibn Umayyah, who had stayed behind from Tabuk without excuse, were boycotted by the entire community for 50 days. No one spoke to them, and Ka'b's wife was sent away. On the 50th day, Allah revealed their forgiveness: 'And He also turned in mercy to the three who were left behind until the earth, despite its vastness, closed in on them' (9:118). Ka'b described hearing the good news as the happiest moment of his life.

The hypocrites built a mosque near Quba ostensibly for worship but actually as a center of conspiracy against the Muslim community and as a base for Abu Amir al-Rahib, a monk who had allied with the Byzantines. They invited the Prophet to pray in it, but Allah revealed: 'And those who took a mosque for causing harm, disbelief, division among the believers, and as a station for whoever had warred against Allah and His Messenger before' (9:107). The Prophet ordered it demolished upon his return from Tabuk.

The ninth year of Hijrah is known as the Year of Delegations. After the conquest of Mecca, tribes from all over Arabia sent delegations to the Prophet to declare their acceptance of Islam or negotiate alliances. Over 60 delegations arrived in Medina, including from Thaqif, Tamim, Abd al-Qays, Najran Christians, and the kings of Yemen and Oman. Islam spread peacefully across the peninsula as tribal leaders recognized the new political reality. The Prophet received each delegation with hospitality and wisdom.

About a year after the failed siege of Ta'if, the Thaqif tribe sent a delegation to Medina to negotiate their acceptance of Islam. They initially asked to keep their idol al-Lat for three years, then one year, then one month, all of which the Prophet refused. They also asked to be exempted from prayer, but the Prophet said: 'There is no good in a religion that has no prayer.' They finally accepted all conditions. The Prophet sent Abu Sufyan ibn Harb and al-Mughirah ibn Shu'bah to destroy al-Lat.

The Prophet appointed Abu Bakr to lead 300 Muslims in the Hajj pilgrimage while he remained in Medina. After Abu Bakr departed, the opening verses of Surah at-Tawbah were revealed, declaring disassociation from the polytheists and giving them four months to accept Islam or leave the sacred precinct. The Prophet sent Ali ibn Abi Talib to catch up with Abu Bakr and announce these verses at Mina. From this year onward, no polytheist was permitted to perform Hajj or circumambulate the Ka'bah naked.

The Negus (an-Najashi), the righteous Christian king of Abyssinia who had sheltered the Muslim refugees, died in the ninth year of Hijrah. The Prophet received news of his death through revelation on the same day and announced it to his companions: 'A righteous man has died today. Stand and pray for your brother Ashamah.' He led the funeral prayer (salat al-janazah) in absentia in Medina, the first recorded instance of this practice. This established the precedent for praying the funeral prayer for someone who dies in a distant land.

Umm Kulthum bint Muhammad ﷺ, the third of the Prophet's daughters, passed away in Medina in 9 AH (630 CE) after a period of illness. She had been married to Uthman ibn Affan following the death of her elder sister Ruqayyah, who had also been Uthman's wife. The Prophet ﷺ was deeply grieved by her passing. He washed her body himself, or supervised its washing, and led her funeral prayer. Her death left only Fatimah among the Prophet's daughters still alive. Uthman earned the title 'Dhu al-Nurayn' (Possessor of Two Lights) for having been married to two of the Prophet's daughters. The Prophet's patience in the face of repeated personal losses demonstrated the depth of his trust in Allah's decree.

Ibrahim, the Prophet's infant son from Mariyah al-Qibtiyyah, died at about 16 months old. The Prophet wept and said: 'The eyes shed tears and the heart is grieved, but we say only what pleases our Lord. O Ibrahim, we are saddened by your departure.' A solar eclipse occurred that day, and people attributed it to Ibrahim's death. The Prophet corrected them: 'The sun and moon are signs of Allah. They are not eclipsed for the death or birth of anyone.' He then led the eclipse prayer.

In Dhul-Qadah 10 AH (February 632 CE), the Prophet ﷺ announced his intention to perform Hajj — his first and only Hajj as the final prophet, which would also prove to be his last. An estimated 90,000 to 144,000 companions joined him from Medina, while many more joined en route from across the Arabian Peninsula. The Prophet ﷺ performed every rite of Hajj with meticulous care, teaching the companions the proper method. He delivered the historic Farewell Sermon at Arafat before a congregation of over 100,000 believers. During this Hajj, the final verse completing the religion was revealed: 'This day I have perfected your religion for you' (5:3). The Prophet said: 'Learn your Hajj rites from me, for I do not know if I will perform Hajj after this year.'

On the Day of Arafat (9th Dhul-Hijjah, 10 AH / 9 March 632 CE), the Prophet ﷺ delivered his historic Farewell Sermon (Khutbat al-Wada) before over 100,000 Muslims on the plain of Arafat. He addressed: the sanctity of Muslim life, wealth, and honor; the abolition of pre-Islamic blood vendettas and usury (beginning with his own family's claims); the rights of women and the mutual obligations of spouses; the permanent validity of the Quran and Sunnah as guidance; and the absolute equality of all humans regardless of race or lineage, declaring: 'No Arab has superiority over a non-Arab, and no non-Arab over an Arab, except through taqwa (God-consciousness).' He then asked: 'Have I conveyed the message?' The crowd answered: 'Yes.' He said: 'O Allah, be witness.'

On the Day of Arafat during the Farewell Pilgrimage, Allah revealed: 'This day I have perfected for you your religion and completed My favor upon you and have approved for you Islam as religion' (5:3). When Umar heard this verse, he wept, sensing it signaled the approaching end of the Prophet's mission and life. A Jewish scholar told Umar that had such a verse been revealed to them, they would have made that day a festival. Umar replied that it was revealed on two Eids: Friday and the Day of Arafat.

Scholars differ on which verse was the last to be revealed. The strongest opinions include: 'And fear a Day when you will be returned to Allah. Then every soul will be compensated for what it earned, and they will not be treated unjustly' (2:281), which Ibn Abbas narrated was the final verse. Others hold it was the completion verse (5:3) revealed at Arafat, or the verse on usury (2:278). Regardless of which was chronologically last, the revelation that had continued for 23 years came to its close.

Shortly before his death, the Prophet ﷺ appointed the 18-year-old Usamah ibn Zayd to lead an army to southern Palestine to avenge the martyrdom of his father Zayd ibn Harithah at Mu'tah. Some senior companions questioned the appointment of such a young commander. The Prophet firmly rebuked this, saying: 'If you criticize his leadership, you criticized his father's leadership before him, and by Allah, he was worthy of leadership.' The army was preparing to march when the Prophet fell ill.

The Prophet ﷺ fell severely ill with fever, beginning at the house of his wife Maymunah. He asked permission from his wives to be nursed in Aisha's room, which they granted. His fever was so intense that a companion touching his hand could feel the heat through a cloth. He continued to lead prayers when able, and when too weak, appointed Abu Bakr to lead in his place. He spent his final days giving the community its last instructions and freeing his slaves.

During a brief improvement in his illness, the Prophet ﷺ entered the mosque with his head bandaged, supported between Ali and al-Abbas. He addressed the community one final time, praising the Ansar and urging kindness toward them. He said: 'The people will increase and the Ansar will decrease, like salt in food. Whoever is given authority over the affairs of the Muslims, let him accept the good from them and overlook their faults.' He also said: 'A servant was given the choice between this world and what is with Allah, and he chose what is with Allah.' Abu Bakr wept, understanding.

The Prophet ﷺ passed away on a Monday in Medina in the room of his wife Aisha, with his head resting on her lap. His last words included: 'With the highest companion' (al-Rafiq al-A'la), choosing the Hereafter when given the option. Umar was in shock and denied the death until Abu Bakr addressed the community with his famous words: 'Whoever worshipped Muhammad, then Muhammad has died. But whoever worshipped Allah, then Allah is alive and shall never die,' reciting Quran 3:144. He was buried where he passed away.

The Prophet's burial was delayed until Tuesday night (or Wednesday night according to some narrations) due to the succession crisis and the process of preparing his body. Ali ibn Abi Talib, al-Fadl ibn Abbas, his uncle Abbas, and Usamah ibn Zayd washed the Prophet's body without removing his clothes, based on a report that the Prophet had said: 'Wash me in my garments.' Abbas and his sons turned the body while Ali washed it and Usamah poured the water. They used water mixed with crushed sidr (lote) leaves and camphor. The Prophet was shrouded in three white Yemeni cotton garments without a shirt or turban.