The Ash'ari School of Islamic Theology

The Ash'ari school of theology (al-Asha'irah) is one of the three recognized theological schools within Ahl us-Sunnah wal-Jama'ah. Founded by Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari (d. 324 AH / 936 CE), who left the Mu'tazili school to defend Sunni orthodoxy using the tools of rational theology (kalam), the Ash'ari school became the dominant theological school in the Sunni world, particularly in the Shafi'i and Maliki madhabs. Its influence on Islamic intellectual history has been profound and enduring.

Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari

Al-Ash'ari was originally a student of the Mu'tazili theologian al-Jubba'i. Around the age of forty, he publicly renounced Mu'tazili theology and declared his return to the way of Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal and the ahl al-hadith. In his book "al-Ibanah an Usul al-Diyanah" (The Elucidation of the Foundations of Religion), he stated his creed in clearly Athari terms. His later works, however, developed a methodology that used kalam arguments to defend Sunni positions against the Mu'tazilah, the philosophers, and other groups. This created a new school that occupied a middle ground between pure textualism and pure rationalism.

Key Doctrines

The Ash'ari school affirms the traditional Sunni beliefs but differs from the Athari school in its approach to Allah's Attributes. While affirming the seven essential Attributes (Life, Knowledge, Power, Will, Hearing, Seeing, and Speech), Ash'aris interpret some textual Attributes (such as Hand, Face, and Istawa) through ta'wil (metaphorical interpretation) to avoid any suggestion of anthropomorphism. They hold that the Quran, as Allah's eternal Attribute of Speech, is uncreated in its meaning but the letters and sounds of the recited Quran are created. On human action, they developed the concept of kasb (acquisition): Allah creates the action and the human "acquires" it through their will, making them morally responsible.

Notable Ash'ari Scholars

The Ash'ari school produced many of the most influential scholars in Islamic history. Al-Baqillani (d. 403 AH) systematized Ash'ari theology. Imam al-Haramayn al-Juwayni (d. 478 AH) developed it further and was the teacher of Imam al-Ghazali. Abu Hamid al-Ghazali (d. 505 AH) became perhaps the most influential Muslim intellectual of all time, whose "Ihya Ulum al-Din" synthesized Ash'ari theology, Shafi'i jurisprudence, and Sufi spirituality. Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (d. 606 AH) wrote extensive works in theology and Quranic exegesis. Al-Nawawi, Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani, al-Suyuti, and many other hadith scholars were also Ash'ari in aqeedah.

Assessment

The Ash'ari school is recognized by the majority of Sunni scholars throughout history as a legitimate school within Ahl us-Sunnah. Scholars who prioritize the Athari approach have criticized certain Ash'ari positions, particularly on the Attributes, arguing that ta'wil of the texts was not practiced by the Salaf. Ash'ari scholars respond that their methodology was necessary to defend Sunni Islam against philosophical challenges and that their ta'wil of certain Attributes is a valid scholarly exercise (ijtihad) within the bounds of orthodoxy. The ongoing dialogue between these schools remains an important feature of Sunni intellectual life.