Ilm al-Kalam — Islamic Theology

Definition

Ilm al-Kalam (علم الكلام), literally 'the science of discourse,' is Islamic systematic theology. It is the discipline that addresses foundational questions of faith using rational arguments: the existence of God, the nature of divine attributes, free will versus predestination, the created or uncreated nature of the Quran, and the relationship between reason and revelation. Kalam developed in response to both internal theological debates and external challenges from Greek philosophy, Christianity, and other traditions.

Historical Development

The earliest theological debates emerged in the first Islamic century over questions of faith versus works (the Murji'ah vs. Khawarij debate), divine attributes (the Mu'tazilah vs. traditionalists), and free will versus predestination (Qadariyyah vs. Jabriyyah). The Mu'tazilah, who emphasized rational theology, became dominant under the Abbasid caliphs al-Ma'mun, al-Mu'tasim, and al-Wathiq, imposing the doctrine that the Quran was created through the Mihna (inquisition). Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal's principled resistance to this doctrine became legendary.

The Ash'ari and Maturidi Schools

Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari (d. 936 CE), originally a Mu'tazili, broke away and developed a middle path that used rational methodology to defend traditional Sunni beliefs. Abu Mansur al-Maturidi (d. 944 CE) independently developed a similar approach in Central Asia. Both schools became the dominant theological frameworks in Sunni Islam. The Ash'ari school predominates in the Shafi'i and Maliki madhabs, while the Maturidi school predominates among Hanafis.

The Athari Position

The Athari (textualist) approach, associated with the Hanbali school and scholars like Ibn Taymiyyah, holds that the early Muslims (Salaf) did not engage in kalam and that theological questions should be answered directly from the texts without philosophical elaboration. Atharis accept the divine attributes as stated in the Quran and Sunnah 'without asking how' (bila kayf). All three positions, Ash'ari, Maturidi, and Athari, are accepted within Ahl us-Sunnah wal-Jama'ah.