The Fatimid Caliphate: An Ismaili Shia State

The Fatimid Caliphate (909-1171 CE) was an Ismaili Shia dynasty that at its peak controlled North Africa, Egypt, Sicily, the Levant, and the Hejaz. The Fatimids claimed descent from Fatimah, the daughter of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), through the Ismaili line of Shia imams. From the Sunni perspective of Ahl us-Sunnah wal-Jama'ah, the Fatimids' claim to the caliphate was illegitimate, and their Ismaili theology represented a significant deviation from orthodox Islam. Nevertheless, their historical impact was substantial.

Rise in North Africa

The Fatimid movement began as a clandestine Ismaili missionary (da'wah) network that spread across the Muslim world. In 909 CE, the Ismaili imam Abdullah al-Mahdi established the Fatimid state in Ifriqiya (modern Tunisia), claiming to be the true caliph in opposition to the Sunni Abbasids in Baghdad. The Fatimids gradually expanded their control over the Maghreb, displacing the Aghlabid and Idrisid dynasties. Their ideology held that the Ismaili imam was a divinely guided leader with authority over both religious and political matters.

The Founding of Cairo

In 969 CE, the Fatimid general Jawhar al-Siqilli conquered Egypt and founded the city of al-Qahirah (Cairo, meaning "The Victorious") as the new Fatimid capital. The city quickly became one of the greatest metropolises of the medieval world. In 970 CE, the Fatimids established al-Azhar mosque and its associated madrasa, which eventually became al-Azhar University, the oldest continuously operating degree-granting university in the world. Though founded as an Ismaili institution, al-Azhar was converted to Sunni scholarship under Salahuddin al-Ayyubi and remains the preeminent center of Sunni Islamic learning today.

Sunni Assessment

Sunni scholars have consistently viewed the Fatimid caliphate with criticism. Many scholars, including Ibn al-Jawzi and al-Dhahabi, questioned the Fatimids' genealogical claims to descent from Ahl al-Bayt. The Ismaili theology promoted by the Fatimids, including esoteric (batini) interpretation of the Quran and the concept of a divinely infallible imam, was rejected by Sunni orthodoxy. The Baghdad Manifesto of 1011, signed by numerous scholars, formally denied the Fatimids' Alid lineage. Nevertheless, the Fatimid era produced significant contributions to architecture, art, and trade that enriched the broader Islamic civilization.

Fall and Transition to Ayyubids

The Fatimid state weakened in the 12th century due to internal power struggles, military defeats, and famine. In 1171, Salahuddin al-Ayyubi, who had been serving as vizier, abolished the Fatimid caliphate and restored Sunni Islam in Egypt, recognizing the Abbasid caliph in Baghdad. This transition was largely peaceful, as Ismaili Shia had always been a minority even within Fatimid territories. The Ayyubid restoration of Sunni orthodoxy, including the conversion of al-Azhar to Sunni scholarship, was celebrated by Sunni scholars as a major achievement.