Ijtihad — Independent Legal Reasoning

Ijtihad is the exertion of maximum intellectual effort by a qualified scholar to derive a legal ruling from the primary sources of Islamic law (the Quran and Sunnah) for a matter not explicitly addressed by a clear, definitive text. The word comes from the root "jahada" (to strive), indicating the difficulty and seriousness of this scholarly endeavor. The Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) approved of ijtihad when he asked Mu'adh ibn Jabal how he would judge when sent to Yemen. Mu'adh replied: by the Quran, then the Sunnah, then by my own ijtihad. The Prophet said: "Praise be to Allah who has guided the messenger of the Messenger of Allah to what pleases the Messenger of Allah" (Sunan Abu Dawud).

Qualifications of a Mujtahid

Not every Muslim is qualified to perform ijtihad. The scholars set rigorous conditions: mastery of the Arabic language sufficient to understand the Quran and Sunnah directly; comprehensive knowledge of the Quran, including its abrogating and abrogated verses, the occasions of revelation, and the general and specific rulings; extensive knowledge of hadith, including the ability to distinguish authentic from weak narrations and knowledge of the narrators; knowledge of ijma (consensus) so as not to contradict established consensus; mastery of qiyas (analogy) and its conditions; understanding of the objectives of the Shariah (maqasid); and piety, justice, and freedom from bias. Imam al-Shafi'i outlined these conditions in his Risalah.

Levels of Ijtihad

Scholars distinguish several levels. The mujtahid mutlaq (absolute mujtahid) is qualified to derive rulings independently across all areas of law, such as the four imams. The mujtahid fi al-madhhab exercises ijtihad within a particular school's methodology, such as al-Nawawi within the Shafi'i school. The mujtahid fi al-mas'alah exercises ijtihad on specific issues while following a school generally. The muqallid (follower) is not qualified for ijtihad and follows qualified scholarship. The vast majority of Muslims throughout history have been muqallids, and there is no shame in this, just as a patient follows a doctor's prescription without needing to understand pharmacology.

The "Closing of the Door of Ijtihad"

A common claim is that the "door of ijtihad was closed" after a certain period, meaning that no scholar after the founding imams could exercise independent legal reasoning. In reality, this claim is disputed. While some scholars argued that absolute ijtihad (on the level of the four imams) was no longer possible, the majority maintained that ijtihad continues as a collective obligation (fard kifayah) of the ummah. Ibn Taymiyyah, al-Suyuti, and al-Shawkani all argued that ijtihad must continue. Modern scholars like the members of the Islamic Fiqh Academy regularly exercise ijtihad on contemporary issues.

Modern Ijtihad

Contemporary challenges demand ongoing ijtihad: bioethics (organ transplantation, genetic engineering, end-of-life care), financial transactions (cryptocurrency, Islamic banking instruments), technology (digital privacy, AI), environmental stewardship, and social issues. These are addressed through collective ijtihad (ijtihad jama'i) by councils of scholars, which combines the expertise of jurists, scientists, economists, and medical professionals. This approach is considered more reliable than individual ijtihad for complex modern questions, as it reduces the risk of error while maintaining the dynamism that Islamic law requires to address every era's unique challenges.