The Mongol Invasion of the Islamic World

The Mongol invasion of the Islamic world in the 13th century was one of the most catastrophic events in Muslim history. Beginning with Genghis Khan's campaigns against the Khwarazmian Empire in 1219 CE and culminating in the fall of Baghdad in 1258 CE, the Mongol conquests destroyed centuries of Islamic civilization, killed millions, and ended the Abbasid caliphate. Yet the Muslim world ultimately survived, and within decades many Mongol rulers themselves embraced Islam.

The Destruction of Khwarazm

The Mongol invasion began when the Khwarazmian Shah Muhammad II executed Mongol envoys and merchants, provoking Genghis Khan's wrath. Between 1219 and 1221, Mongol armies swept through Central Asia, destroying the great cities of Bukhara, Samarkand, Balkh, and Merv. The destruction was unprecedented: Bukhara was burned to the ground, and Merv, one of the largest cities in the world, saw its entire population massacred. Scholars, libraries, and irrigation systems that had sustained civilization for centuries were obliterated.

The Fall of Baghdad (1258 CE)

The climax of the Mongol devastation came with Hulagu Khan's siege and capture of Baghdad in February 1258 CE. The last Abbasid caliph, al-Musta'sim, was executed, and the city that had been the center of Islamic learning for five centuries was sacked. The Bayt al-Hikmah (House of Wisdom), its libraries, mosques, and hospitals were destroyed. The Tigris River reportedly ran black with ink from the manuscripts thrown into it and red with the blood of scholars. Estimates of the dead range from hundreds of thousands to over a million.

Recovery and Conversion

Despite the devastation, the Muslim world proved resilient. The Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt defeated the Mongols at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260 CE, halting their advance into Africa. Over the following century, many Mongol rulers in Persia and Central Asia converted to Islam. The Ilkhanate ruler Ghazan Khan embraced Islam in 1295 CE, and his successors promoted Islamic learning. From the ashes of the Mongol destruction, new centers of Islamic civilization arose, including the Timurid Renaissance in Central Asia and the eventual Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal empires.