3. Arbitration

Both sides agreed to refer to arbitration after the end of the battle of Siffeen. Each side was to appoint a man as an arbitrator to represent it, then the two arbitrators were to reach an agreement that was in the best interests of the Muslims. Mu'2wiyah appointed 'Amr ibn al-'As, and 'Ali appointed Abu Moosa al-Ash'ari (may Allah be pleased with them all), and a document was written concerning that. The place where the two arbitrators were to meet was Doomat alJandal, in the month of Ramadan 37 AH. Some of 'Ali's army thought that this action was a sin that implied disbelief and that he should repent to Allah, they rebelled against him and became h o w n as the Kharijites (rebels).

'Ali (&) sent lbn 'Abbgs (&) to debate with them, and then 'Ali (4) himself debated with them. A group of them rejoined him, but others refused, and there were battles between them and 'Ali (&), which weakened and exhausted his forces. They kept causing trouble until they assassinated him; we will discuss this in detail below. The issue of arbitration is regarded as one of the most serious issues in the history of the Rightly Guided Caliphs. Many writers lost their way when discussing it and wrote about it in a confused manner The Battles of the Camel and Szffeen, and the issue of arbitration in their books.

They relied on weak and fabricated reports that distorted the image of the noble Companions, especially Abu Moosa al-Ash'ari. He was described as a feebleminded and weak character who was easily deceived with words, and as a man who was so heedless that he was tricked by 'Amr ibn al-'AS with regard to the matter of arbitration. They described 'Am ibn EL-'& (&) as a crafty and deceitful man. These writers, who had ulterior motives ;md a grudge against Islam, tried to ascribe to these two great men many blameworthy characteristics, even though these were the two men whom the Muslims chose to make a decision regarding a serious dispute that had led to the killing of many Muslims. Many historians, writers and researchers treated these reports, which were fabricated by the opponents of the Companions, as if they were historical facts.

People accepted them without examining them, as if they were sound and as if there was no doubt concerning them. It may be because of the exciting, narrative style in which they were written, or because the claims of trickery and deceit made people interested in it and made the historians keen to write it down. We are speaking about the details of what happened, not the issue of arbitration itself, because there is no doubt that it took place.672 I decided to begin this discussion with a look at the biography of the two great Companions, Abu Moosa al-Ash'ari and 'Amr ibn al-'As (may Allah be pleased with them both). 3.1. Biography of Abu Moosa al-Ash'ari His full name was Abdullah ibn Qays ibn Haddir ibn Harb. He was the great leader and Companion of the Messenger of Allah (g), Abu Moosa d-Ash'ari at-Tameemi, the prominent scholar and reciter of ~ n r ' a n . ~ ' ~ Abu Moosa became Muslim during the early days in MaWtah.

Ibn Sa'd said: "He came to Makkah and formed an alliance with Sa'eed ibn al-'As. He became Muslim early on and migrated to 'Ali ibn Abi T6lib ~ b ~ s s i n i a . " ~ ~ ~ Some reports say that he went back to his people to call them to Allah. Ibn Hajar reconciled the reports about his becoming Muslim, saying: "There is some confusion about the reports that said that Abu Moosa migrated to Abyssinia, because what is mentioned in the sound report is that Abu Moosa left his land with a group of people, heading towards the Prophet (@J in Khaybar. It is possible to reconcile these reports by noting that Abu Moosa migrated first to Makkah, where he became Muslim, and the Prophet @) sent him with those whom he sent to Abyssinia.

Abn Moosa went to his people's land, which was opposite Abyssinia on the eastern side. When he realised that the Prophet (gJ and his Companions had settled in Madinah, he headed for Madinah, along with those of his people who had become Muslim, but the ship that was carrying them ended up in Abyssinia because the wind blew it off course. That is possible and thus the reports may be reconciled and should be adopted."675 3.1.1. The badge of honour that the Messenger of Allah (g) pinned to the chest of Abu Moosa 3.1.1.a. "You migrated twice: your migration to Abyssinia and your migration to me" It was narrated that Abu Moosa said: "We set out from Yemen with more than fifty of my people.

We were three brothers: myself, Abn Ruhm and Abu 'Amir. But our ship took us to Abyssinia, where Ja'far and his companions were, and we came when Khaybar was conquered. The Messenger of Allah (g) said: 'Yon migrated twice: your migration to Abyssinia and your migration to me. ,,,676 It was also narrated that Anas said: "The Messenger of Allah a?) said: 'Tomorrow people will come to you whose hearts are more receptive to Islam than yours.' The Ash'aris came, and when they drew close they began to recite poetry: 'Tomorrow we will meet all Tke Battles of the Camel and Siffeen, and the issue of arbitration our loved ones, Muhammad and his party.' When they anived, they shook hands; they were the first ones to start the tradition of shaking hands."677 3.1.1.b. "They are your people, 0 Abu Moosa" It was narrated that 'Iy2d d-Ash'ari said: "When the verse, dAllah will bring a people whom He will love and they will love Himb (Quran 5: 54) was revealed, the Messenger of Allah (g) said: 'They are your people, 0 Abu Moosa,' and he pointed to him."678 3.1.l.c. "0 AIlah, forgive Abdullah ibn Qays for his sins, and admit him to a gate of great honour on the Day of Resurrection" It was narrated that Ahu Moosa said: "When the Prophet (s) had finished with Hnnayn, he sent Abu 'Amir al-Ash'ari at the head of an anny to Aw@, where he met Durayd ibn as-Sammah.

Durayd was killed, and AUah caused his companions to be defeated. Ahn 'An51 was struck iu the knee with an arrow, and it was stuck in his knee. I came to him and said: '0 uncle, who strnck you?' Abu 'Amir pointed him out, and I went and caught up with him, hut he ran away when he saw me. I started saying: 'Don't you feel ashamed? Aren't you an Arab?

Won't you stand firm?' So he stopped, and we met and traded blows; then I killed him. I went back to Abu '&nit and said: 'Allah has killed your opponent.' He said: 'Pull this arrow out.' I pulled it out, and water came out of the wound. He said: '0 son of my brother, go to the Messenger of Allah (g) and convey greetings of saliim to him from me, and say to him: " A ~ U 'Amir says to you: 'Pray for forgiveness for me."" Abu ' h r appointed me in charge of the people, and it was not long before he died. When we returned, I told the Prophet (g) what had happened. He made wudoo', then he raised his hands until I could see the whiteness of his armpits, and he said: '0 Allah, forgive Abu 'Amif.

Then he said: '0 Allah, on the Day of 'Ali ibn Abi Trilib Resurrection make him above many of Your creation.' I said: 'And me, 0 Messenger of Allah?' He said: '0 Allah, forgive Abdullah ibn Qays for his sins, and admit him to a gate of great honour679 on the Day of ~esurrection."'~~~ 3.1.1.d. "This one has rejected glad tidings; you two should accept it" It was narrated that Abn Moosa said: "I was with the Messenger of Allah (&) in a l - ~ i ' r i n a h ~ ~ ~ when a Bedouin came and said: 'Will you fulfil your promise to me, 0 Muhammad?' The Messenger of AUab (&) said to him: 'Be of good cbeer.' The Bedouin said to him: 'How often you say to me, "Be of good cbeer."' The Messenger of Allah (a) turned to Bil2 and me, saying: 'This one has rejected glad tidings; yon two should accept it.' They said: 'We accept it, 0 Messenger of Allah.' The Messenger of AUah (.@J called for a vessel of water. He washed his hands and face in it and rinsed his mouth, then he said: 'Drink from it and pour some on your heads and chests.' We did that, and Umm Salamah called out to us from behind the curtain: 'Leave some of that which is in your vessel for your mother.' So we left some of it for her."682 3.1.1.e. "He has been given a beautiful voice like that of DSwood" It was narrated from Abdullah ibn Buraydah that his father said: "I came out of the mosque one night and saw the Prophet (g) standing at the door of the mosque, and a man was praying. He said to me: '0 Buraydah, do you think he is showing off?' I said: 'Allah and His Messenger know best.' He said: 'Rather he is a devoted believer.

He has been given a beautiful voice like that of Dzwood.' I went to him and saw that he was Abu Moosa al-Ash'ari, and I told him.n683 The Battles of the Camel and Siffeen, and the issue of arbitration 3.1.1.f. "0 Abdullah ibn Qays, shall I not tell you of one of the treasures of paradise?" It was narrated that Abu Moosa al-Ash'ari said: "We were with the Prophet (g) on a journey, and the people were climbing a hill. Every time a man reached the top of a hill, he would say: 'LZ ilriha ill6 All6h wa AllZhu Akbar (There is none worthy of worship other than Allah and Allah is the Greatest)' -and I think he said it at the top of his voice. The Messenger of Allah (@J was on his mule, climbing up the mountain. He said: '0 people, you are not calling upon One Who is deaf or absent.' Then he said: '0 AbduUah ibn Qays - or 0 Abu Moosa - shall I not tell yon of one of the treasures of paradise?' I said: 'Yes, 0 Messenger of AUah.' He said: 'Say: huwla wu 16 quwwata ill6 Bill6h (There is no might and no power except with Allah). 23,684 3.1.1.g.

"Be easygoing, and do not be harsh. Give glad tidings, and do not put people off" The Messenger of AUah (g) aqpointed Abu Moosa in charge of Zubayd and den.^'^ It was narrated from Abu Moosa that when the Prophet (g) -- sent him to Yemen with Mu'sdh, he advised them: "Be easygoing, and do not be harsh. Give glad tidings, and do not put people off." Abu Moosa said to him: "In our land, there is a drink called at-tabagh that is made from honey, and there is another drink called al-mizr that is made from barley." The Prophet (B) said: "Every intoxicant is harh." Then both of them went on their way, and later Mu'%& asked Abu Moosa: "How do you recite the Quran?" Abu Moosa replied: "I recite it in my prayer and when riding my mount, standing and sitting, a little at a time." Mu'Zdh said: "I sleep then I get up, so I hope for reward from Allah when I sleep as I seek reward from Him for my night prayer."686 'Ali ibn Abi Tilib 3.1.2. The status of Abu Moosa (&) in the view of 'Umar ibn al-~hattib (4) Abu Moosa was one of the pillars of the Muslim state at the time of 'Umar (&). He was a commander of the army during the conquest of Q U ~ ~ ~ ~ and Qithin and at the Battle of as tar.^" He was also one of the founders of the Basri school at the time of 'Umar (&); he went to Basra and taught there.689 He was regarded as one of the most knowledgeable of the Companions.

He was influenced by 'Umar ibn al-Khagb (&), and there was correspondence between them; this is mentioned in the discussion of the institutions of governors and judges. Abu Moosa (&) was famous for his knowledge, worship, piety, modesty, dignity, lack of interest in worldly gains and steadfastness in adhering to Islam. He is regarded as one of the senior scholars, jurists and muftis among the Companions. He was mentioned by adh-Dhahabi in Tadhkirat al-Huffae as being at the highest level of the Companions. He was knowledgeable and acted upon his knowledge.

He was a righteous man who constantly recited the Book of Allah, and he had the most beautiful voice when reciting Quran. He was the most knowledgeable of the people of Basra in Quran and in deep understanding of Islam, and he conveyed that excellent and blessed knowledge. He spent a great deal of time with the Prophet (B), and he learned from senior Companions such as 'Umar, 'Ali, Ubayy ibn ~ ~ Ka'b and Abdullah ibn Mas'ood (may Allah be pleased with them all). Abu Moosa was influenced in particular by 'Urnar ibn alKhagb, who gave him a great deal of advice and sent letters to him during his lengthy governorship of Basra. Abu Moosa used to refer to 'Umar (4) concerning all cases that came to him, to the extent that ash-Shn'bi regarded him as one of the leading and most famous judges of the Ummah.

He said: "The judges of the Ummah are The Battles of the Camel and Sireen, and the issue of arbitration 'Umar, 'Ali, Zayd ihn Thiihit and Ahu ~ o o s a . " ~ ~ ~ When Abu Moosa came to Madinah, he was keen to attend 'Umar's gatherings and sometimes spent a long time with him. It was narrated from Ahu Bakr ihn 'Umar that Ahu Moosa (&) came to 'Umar ihn al-Khau2h after the evening prayer, and 'Umar (a) said to him: "What brings you here?" He said: "I have come to talk to you." He said: "At this hour?'He said: "It is to discuss a matter of knowledge." So 'Umar (&) sat down, and they talked for a long time, then Ahu Moosa said: "The prayer, 0 Amir al-Mu'mineen." 'Umar (&) said: "We are in a state of prayer."691 Just as Ahu Moosa was keen to seek knowledge, he was also enthusiastic about spreading that knowledge and teaching people. In his sermons, he would teach the people and encourage them to learn. . . It was narrated that Abu al-Muhallah said: "I heard Abu Moosa on his minhar saying: 'Whoever is granted knowledge by Allah, let him teach it, hut he should not speak of that of which he has no knowledge, lest he become one of those who make things up and thus go beyond the pale of slam."'^^^ Ahu Moosa made the mosque of Basra a centre for his academic activity, and he allocated a large portion of his time to academic gatherings.

He did not stop there, though; he did not let any oppomity pass without making the most of it to teach and educate the people. After he said the s a l h at the end of the prayer, he would turn to face the people, teaching them and checking on their recitation of the noble Quran. Ibn Shawdhah said: "When Ahu Moosa had prayed the dawn prayer, he would turn to face the rows of people and ask them to recite, one by one."693 Ahu Moosa was well known among the Companions for his beautiful voice and recitation. The people would gather around him when they heard him reading. When Ahn Moosa sat with him, 'Umar ( *- would ask him to recite for % him whatever he could of Quran.

'Ali ibn Abi Tiilib Allah (&) enabled him to teach the Muslims, and he did all he could to teach Quran and spread it among the people in every land he stayed in. The people would gather around h i to hear his beautiful voice and recitation. Seekers of knowledge crowded around him in the mosque of Basra, and he divided them into groups arranged in circles. He would go around reciting to them, listening to them and correcting their recitation.695 The noble Quran was his main preoccupation; he devoted most of his time to it, whether or not he was not travelling. It was narrated that Anas ibn M& said: "Al- ' . me to ' Iha&$&mcilUmar~aid; 'IIowwasa1Ash'ari when you left him?' I said: 'I left him teaching people the Qnr'an.' He said: 'He is wise and smart,696 but do not tell him (that I said that)."'697 Even when he went out for jihad, he would teach and educate others.

It was narrated that HaGb ibn Abdullah ar-Riqishi said: "We were with Abu Moosa al-Ash'ari (&)in an army on the banks of the Tigris when the time of prayer came, so his caller gave the call for the noon prayer. The people went to perform wudoo', and he made wudoo'. He led them in prayer, and then they sat in a circle. When the time came for the afternoon prayer, his caller gave the call for that prayer, and the people got up to do wudoo' again. His caller said: 'No wudoo' is required except for the one who broke his wudoo'."' His academic efforts bore fruit, and he had the joy of seeing large numbers of people around him who had memorised the noble Quran and had become scholars.

In Basra alone, their number was more than three hundred. When 'Umar ibn al-KhatGb (&) asked his employees to send him the names of those who had memorised the Quran, so that he could honour them and increase their stipends, Abu Moosa wrote to him, telling him that the number of people with him who had learned the Qnr'an by heart was three hundred The Battles o f the Camel and Siffeen, and the issue of arbitration Abu Moosa (&) also paid attention to teaching and narrating the Sunnah. A number of Companions and senior Tihi'oon narrated from him. Adh-Dhahabi (may Allah have mercy on him) said: "Buraydah ibn d-Husayb, Abu Umhah d-Bihili, Abu Sa'eed alKhudri, Anas ihn Msik, T&iq ihn Sbihzb, Sa'eed ibn al-Musayyab, al-Aswad ihn Yazeed, Abu W2il Shaqeeq ibn Salamah, Abu 'Utbm2n an-Nahdi and others narrated from him."699 He (4) adhered strongly to the Sunnah of the Prophet (g); this is indicated by his conduct during his life and by what he instructed his children to do after he died. Despite his great enthusiasm for the Sunnah, he did not narrate a large number of hadiths, and this was true of the senior Companions; they were very cautious in narrating from the Prophet a).

One of the people who was close to Ahu Moosa in Basra was Anas ihn Mitik, who is regarded as one of his inner circle. It was narrated from Thzbit that Anas said: "We were with Abu Moosa on a journey, and the people were talldng and mentioning worldly matters. Abu Moosa said: '0 Anas, these people are talking too much. Come, let us remember our Lord for a while.' Then he said: 'What slowed the people down (in pursuing matters of the hereafler)?' I said: 'Worldly matters, Satan and whims and desires.' He said: 'No, it is the fact that this world is close, and they can see it, while the hereafter is hidden from them. By Allah, if they could see it with their own eyes, they would not drift or turn away from it."'700 Since Abu Moosa trusted Anas, he appointed him to be his envoy to Amir al-Mu'mineen 'Umar (&).

Anas said: "Abu Moosa al-Ash'ari sent me from Basra to 'Umar, who asked me about the people's situation." After the battle of Tastar, Abu Moosa sent him to 'Umar with the prisoners and booty, and he took its Persian commander Hormozan to mar.^^' 'Ali ibn Abi T&lib 3.1.3. Governorship of Abu Moosa at the time of 'Umar and 'Uthmh (may Allah be pleased with them) Abu Moosa is rightfully regarded as the most famous of the governors of Basra during the time of 'Umar ibn al-Khatt2b (&). During the time of Abu Moosa, many places in Persia were conquered; he used to go out for jihad himself, and he would send the commanders in different directions from Basra. The period of his governorship was filled with jihad, and the people of Basra managed to conquer a number of important places, including al-Ahw2z and its environs. Abu Moosa cooperated with neighbouring governors in many wars and conquests.

He put a great deal of effort into organising the conquered regions, appointing governors over them, securing them and organising their affairs. There was a great deal of correspondence between Abu Moosa and 'Umar ibu al-Khag2b (&) concerning different issues, and 'Umar gave him valuable advice about how he should deal with the people when he received them in his councils, and about fearing Allah (g) and trying to help the people. 'Urnar (&) said: "The most blessed of people is the one whose subjects are blessed because of him, and the most wretched of people is the one whose subjects are wretched because of him. Beware of indulging in the people's wealth, lest the people working for you also indulge; then your example would he like that of the animal that looks at the green land and starts grazing in order to grow fat, but its death will be caused by its fatness."702 There are a number of letters between 'Umar and Abn Moosa relating to various administrative and executive issues that Abu Moosa was taking care of with the help of instmctions from 'Umar. Most of this correspondence has been compiled by Muhammad Hameedullah in his valuable book on political documents.703 Tke Battles o f the Camel and Szffeen, and the issue of arbitration The period of Abu Moosa's governorship in Basra is regarded as one of its best periods, to the extent that one of the descendants of the people of Basra, namely al-Hasan al-Basri (may Allah have mercy on him) said: "No rider ever came and brought more blessing to its people than Abu ~ o o s a .

" ~ ~ ~ That was because Abu Moosa (&), in addition to being a governor, was the best teacher of its people, as he taught them the Quran and various matters of religion.705 A number of cities in Persia were conquered during the caliphate of 'Umar ibn al-Khat&b (&). They were put under the administration of Basra and run by its governor, who appointed workers to be in charge of them; these employees were under his authority and reported to him directly. Thus Abu Moosa is regarded as one of the greatest governors of 'Umar (&), and the correspondence between 'Umar and Abu Moosa is regarded as one of the most important sources for shedding light on Umar's conduct with his governors and explaining the way he dealt with them?06 'Umar (&), in his instructions to the caliphs who would come after him, recommended that no governor whom he had appointed should be left in his post for more than a year except for Abu Moosa alAsb'ari, whom he said should be left in his post for four years.707 Abu Moosa (4) was also appointed as the judge during the time of 'Umar (&), and 'Umar wrote him a letter about judiciary matters. The guidance in this letter may benefit any judge, or indeed any administrator, in any time or place?08 Ibn al-Qayyim said concerning it: "This is an important letter, which the scholars welcomed and used as a basis for rulings on passing judgement and giving testimony. Muftis are in urgent need of studying it and learning what is in it."709 Abu Moosa was also appointed as a governor at the time of 'Uthmk (&), who asked him to be the judge in Basra.

When 'Ali ibn Abi Tilib 'Uthmin (&) was killed, Abu Moosa was the governor of Kufah, and when 'Ali (&) was appointed as caliph, Abu Moosa accepted the oath of allegiance for him from the people of Kufah, because he had been its governor for 'Uthmin ibn 'Af& (&). When 'Ali (&) was in Dhu Q2r and urged the people of Kufah to lend him their support, Abu Moosa saw the beginning of fitnah and division among the Muslims. He advised the people of Kufah to stay in their houses and keep away from this issue, because it was fitnah in which one who was sitting would be better than one who was standing, and one who was standing would be better than one who was walking. Because of his difference of opinion with the caliph, he was dismissed from his position as governor of ~ u f a h . ~ " From the time he became a Muslim, Abu Moosa (&) spent his life spreading Islam and teaching knowledge to the people, especially the Quran, as he was famous for his recitation; *ing part in jihad for the sake of Allah (L&) and encouraging others to do so; judging disputes between people; spreading justice; and running the affairs of the province by means of the judiciary and administration. There is no doubt that these tasks are difficult and require unique skills and characteristics of knowledge, understanding, quick wit, cleverness, piety and asceticism.

Abu Moosa had an abundant share of these characteristics. The Messenger of Allah (g), and then the four Rightly Guided Caliphs after him, relied on Abu ~ o o s a . ~ " Can it be imagined that the Messenger of AUah (s), then the caliphs who succeeded him, relied on a man who could be tricked in such a way as is narrated in the story of arbitrati~n?~'~ The fact that Abu Moosa (&) was chosen by 'Ali (A&,) and his companions to be an arbitrator on behalf of the people of Iraq is in complete harmony with the sequence of events, because the next stage was to be the stage of reconciliation and uniting the Muslims. Abu Moosa al-Ash'ari was one of those who had called for The Battles of the Camel and Siffeen, and the issue of arbitration reconciliation and peace; at the same time, he was loved and busted by the tribes of Iraq. The earlier sources state that 'Ali is the one who chose Abu Moosa al-Ash'ari. Khaleefah says in his Tbreekh: "In that year (37 AH) the two arbitrators met: Abu Moosa al-Ash'ari on behalf of 'Ali and ' A m ibn al-'A$ on behalf of ~ u ' i w i ~ a h .

" ~ ' ~ Ibn Sa'd said: "The people got fed up with war and were calling for peace. They appointed 6x0 arbitrators. 'Ali appointed Abu Moosa alAsh'ari, and Mu'iiwiyah appointed 'Amr ibn al-'AS.,,714 Hence we can say that the reports about the role attributed to the pious, devoted worshippers at Siffeen - of being responsible for stopping the fighting and resorting to arbitration, and imposing Abu Moosa as an arbitrator - are no more than historical lies that were fabricated by the Shia storytellers, who never stopped fabricating and distorting the history of Islam by means of false reports. It annoyed them that 'Ah (4) seemed to be someone who showed compassion to Mu'iiwiyah and the people of Syria and wanted to reconcile with their traditional enemies. On the other hand, these Shia considered their enemies the Kharijites to be responsible, but they made the Kharijites' actions contradict themselves; the Kharijites are the ones who allegedly forced 'Ali (&) to accept the arbitration, and they are also the ones who rebelled against him because of his accepting the arbitration.715 This brief look at the character of Abu Moosa is strongly connected to our topic, the life and times of Amir al-Mn'mineen 'Ali (+).

Abu Moosa was one of the people who had a profound impact on his era, but his character has been subjected to distortion. In most cases, whenever anyone discussed Siffeen and the arbitration, the characters of Abn Moosa and 'Amr ihn al-'As were subjected to distortion, lies and fabrications because of weak and fabricated reports. Hence it is necessruy to talk about the biographies of these two great men, and this is one of the aims of writing this hook. 'Ali ibn Abi Trilib 3.2. The biography of 'Amr ibn al-'AS (&) His full name was 'Amr ibn al-'As ibn W2il as-Sahmi; his kunyahs are Abu Muhammad and Abu Abdullah.

Ibn 1 s h 2 ~ ~ ' ~ and az-Zubayr ibn ~akk2r~" agreed that he became Muslim while he was with the Negus in Abyssinia, and he migrated to Madinah in Safar 8 AH. Ibn Hajar stated that be became Muslim in 8 AH before the conquest of Makkah, and it was said that it was between Hudaybiyah and ~ h a ~ b a r . ~ " 3.2.1. His becoming ~ u s l i m 'Amr ibn al-'AS (&) himself told the story of his coming to Islam. He said: "When we came away from the Battle of the Trench, I gathered together some men who shared my opinion and would Listen to me, and I said: 'You know, by Allah, that in my opinion, this affair of Muhammad will go to extraordinary lengths. I am thinking of something, and I would like to know what you think of it.' They said: 'What are you thinking of?' I said: 'I think that we should go to the Negus and stay with him.

If Muhammad conquers our people, we will be with the Negus, and we would prefer to be subject to his authority rather than to Muhammad. On the other hand, if our people prevail, they know us and will treat us well.' They thought that my suggestion was excellent, so I told them to collect something that we could take as a gift to the Negus. Leather was the product of our land that he most valued, so we collected a large quantity and took it to him. "By Allah, while we were with him, 'Amr ibn Umayyah adDamri came to him; he had been sent by the Messenger of Allah (@ to find out about Ja'far and his companions. He had an audience with the Negus.

When he came out, I said to my companions that if I were to go to the Negus and ask him to let me have him, he would give him to me. Then we could cut off his head, and if I did that, Quraysh The Battles of the Camel and Siffeen, and the issue of arbitration would see that I had served them well by killing Muhammad's messenger. So I went in to the Negus and prostrated before him as I usually did. He welcomed me as a friend and asked if I had brought anything from our country. When I told him that I had brought a large quantity of leather, and I produced it, he was greatly pleased and wanted it.

I said: '0 King, I have just seen a man leave your presence. He is the messenger of an enemy of ours, so let me have him that I may kill him, for he has killed some of our chiefs and best men.' He was enraged, and reaching out his hand he gave his nose such a blow that I thought he must have broken it. If the ground had opened up, I would have gone into it to escape his anger. Then I said to him: '0 King, by Allah, if I had thought that this would be distasteful to you, I would not have asked it.' He said: 'Are you asking me to give you the messenger of a man to whom the great Namoos [Jihreel (,=)I comes as he used to come to Moosa - so that you can kill him? I said: '0 King, is he really like that?

He said: 'Woe to you, 0 'Amr! Obey me and follow him, for by Allah, he is right. He will triumph over his adversaries as Moosa triumphed over Pharaoh and his armies.' I said: 'Will you accept my oath of allegiance to him in Islam? He said: 'Yes,' and stretched out his hand, and I swore my allegiance to himin Islam. Then I went out to my companions; my opinion had changed from what it was before, hut I concealed my Islam from them.

"Then I went out, heading towards the Messenger of Allah (e) so that I might become Muslim, and I met Khiilid ihn al-Waleed. That was just before the conquest of Makkah, and he was coming from Makkah. I said: 'Where are you going, 0 Abn Sulaymk?' He said: 'By Allah, the way has become clear. The man is indeed a Prophet, and I am going to become Muslim, by Allah. How much longer should I delay?

I said: 'By Allah, I have only come to become Muslim.' So we went to Madinah, to the Messenger of Allah (g). Khiilid ibn al-Waleed went ahead of me and became Muslim and 'Ali ibn Abi Tcilib gave his oath of allegiance, then I came close and said: '0 Messenger of Allah, I will give you my oath of allegiance on the basis that my previous sins will be forgiven and no mention will be made of what went before.' The Messenger of Allah (g) said: '0 'Amr, give your oath of allegiance, for Islam erases all that came before it, and hijrah erases all that came before it.' So I gave my oath of allegiance and departed."719 According to another report, he said: "...when Allah put Islam in my heart, I came to the Prophet (&) and said: 'Hold out your right hand so that I might swear allegiance to you.' He held out his right hand, but I withdrew my hand. He said: 'What is the matter, 0 'Am? I said: 'I want to stipulate a condition.' He said, 'What do you want to stipulate? I said: 'That I will be forgiven.' He said: 'Do you not know, 0 'Am, that Islam destroys whatever came before it, and that hijrah destroys whatever came before it, and that hajj destroys whatever came before it?"7Z0 3.2.2.

'Amr ibn al-'A$ leads a campaign to Dh2t as-Salbil 7 AH The Prophet (g) prepared an army, led by 'Amr ibn al-'As, to go to Dhiit as-Saliisil in order to punish Qudii'ah, who had gathered with the aim of advancing on Madinah. They had developed a high level of confidence against the Muslims because of what had happened at Mu'tah, where they had taken part in the battle on the Byzantine side. 'Amr ibn al-'AS went to their land, accompanied by three hundred of the Muhiijireen and An$%. When he reached the place of the enemy's gathering, he heard that they had gathered in huge numbers, so he sent word to the Messenger of Allah (g) asking for reinforcements, who arrived under the leadership of Abu 'Ubaydah ibn al-~arr*.~~~ The Muslims fought the disbelievers, and 'Amr penetrated deep into the land of Qudii'ah, whose people The Battles of the Camel and S$een, and the issue of arbitration scattered and ran away. 'Amr succeeded in reinstating the position of Islam on the Syrian border and restoring the allies of the Muslims to the way they had been.

Other tribes also entered into an alliance with the Muslims, and many people from the tribes of Banu 'Abs, Banu Murrah and Banu Dhubyin became Muslim. The tribe of F a z u and its chief 'Uyaynah ibn Husn also entered into an alliance with the Muslims, and they were followed by Banu Sulaym, under the leadership of al-'Abbgs ibn Mird2s and Banu Ashja'. The Muslims became the strongest power in northern Arabia, if not in the entire From this campaign we learn a number of lessons and issues regarding 'Amr ibn al-'AS, including the following: 3.2.2.a. The sincerity of ' A m ibn al-'A~ 'Amr said: 'The Messenger of Allah (g) sent word to me saying: 'Put on your garment and take up your weapon, then come to me.' I came to him while he was making wudoo'. He looked up at me, then he looked away and said: 'I want to send you at the head of an army.

Allah will keep you safe and grant you booty, and I hope that you will acquire some wealth from it.' I said: '0 Messenger of Allah, I did not become Muslim for the sake of wealth, I became Muslim out of love for Islam and to be with the Messenger of Allah (e).' He said: '0 'Amr, good (hala) wealth is good for the good man,' "723 This attitude is indicative of the strong faith and sincerity of 'Amr ibn al-'AS and his desire to be close to the Messenger of Allah (g). The Messenger of Allah (B) explained that ha12 wealth is a blessing when it is possessed by a righteous man, because he is seeking the countenance of Allah and will spend it in good ways, such as sponsoring orphans and widows, calling people to Islam, supporting the mujshideen, charitable projects and other good 'Ali ibn Abi TJlib causes, as well as maintaining dignity for himself and his family7z4 and helping Muslims. From this hadith, we may understand that if a person strives to acquire hala wealth, this is something praiseworthy that was encouraged by the Prophet (a). If a man has wealth, and we can manage to guide him and make him righteous, then he may combine hala wealth with righteousness, as in this badith. This is also something desirable and praiseworthy; it is good for him and for Islam and the Muslims. 3.2.2.b.

'Amr's keenness to keep his troops safe When the Messenger of Allah (@) sent 'Amr on the campaign to Dhit as-Salisil, it got cold, but 'Amr told his troops that no one should light a fire. When they came back, they complained about him. He explained: "0 Prophet of Allah, they were few in number, and I was afraid that the enemy might realise that they were few in number. I told them not to pursue the enemy lest they be ambushed." The Messenger of Allah (@) was impressed by that.725 3.2.2.c. 'Amr's understanding of Islam 'Amr ibn al-'AS (&) said: "I had a wet dream on a cold night during the campaign to Dhit as-Salisil.

I was afraid that I would die if I did ghusl, so I performed the dry-earth ablution, then I led my companions in praying the dawn prayer. They mentioned that to the Prophet (g) and he said: '0 'Amr, did you lead your companions in prayer when you were in a state of impurity?' I told him what had prevented me from doing ghusl, and I said: 'I heard that Allah (a) says: {And do not kill yourselves [nor kill one another]. Surely, Allah is Most Merciful to (Quran 4: 29). The Messenger of Allah (g) -- smiled and did not say anything."726 This ijtihid on the part of 'Amr ibu al-'AS is indicative of his deep understanding of Islam, his mature thinking and his subtle derivation of the ruling from the evidence?" The scholars derived The Battles of the Camel and Szffeen, and the issue ofarbitration many rulings from this incident, but what is particularly notable7z8 is the speed with which 'Amr established a connection with the Quran, to the point that he was able to understand matters through these verses although he had only been a Muslim for four months. This is indicative of his keenness to learn about the religion of Allah (g).

It may be, and this is likely, that 'Amr had been in touch with the Quran before he became Muslim, following whatever verses he could hear. In that case, we have another example of the greatness of this Quran, which had a great impact even on the disbelievers and made them, despite their great enmity towards the religion, try to listen to it. We saw that during the Makkan period, and this is supported by what we see here of his knowledge of the Quran when he suggested that the Negus ask the Muslims who had emigrated to Abyssinia about their opinion of 'Eesa ($$2%).729 3.2.3. Virtues of 'Amr 3.2.3.a. The Messenger of Allah &) testified to his faith The Messenger of Allah (@) said: "The people have become Muslims, but 'Am ibn al-'is has become a believer."730 According to another hadith, the Messenger of Allah (g) said: "The two sons of al-'AS are believers: 'Am and ~ i s h 2 m .

" ~ ~ ~ ' Amr ibn al-'AS said: "The people in Madinab with the Prophet (g) panicked and scattered, but I saw Saim put on a sword and sit in the mosque, and when I saw that I did the same. The Messenger of Allah (gJ came out and saw Saim and me, and be said: '0 people, your refuge should be with Allah and His Messenger; why did you not do what these two men did?"'732 'Ali ibn Abi Trilib 3.2.3.b. The Messenger of Allah (g) gave him precedence over others and testified that he was one of the righteous men of Quraysh It is narrated that 'Amr ibn al-'As (&) said: "Since we became Muslim, the Messenger of Allah (B) never regarded anyone as equal to KhSid and me in fighting."733 It was narrated that Abu Mulaykah said: "Talhah ibn 'Ubaydullah said: 'I heard the Messenger of Allah (g) say: "'Am ibn al-'AS is one of the righteous men of Quray~h."'"'~~ This is an example of the Prophet's knowledge of people's qualities and of how to make the most of those qualities. 3.2.3.c. Supplication of the Messenger of Allah (g) for him It was narrated from Zuhayr ibn Qays al-Balawi that his paternal uncle 'llqirnah ibn Ramthah al-Balawi said: "The Messenger of Allah (g) sent 'Amr ibn al-'AS to Bahrain, then the Messenger of Allah (g) dozed off. He woke up and said: 'May Allah have mercy on 'Am.' We discussed which 'Am it was, then he dozed off a second time.

He woke up and said: 'May Allah have mercy on 'Amr.' He dozed off a thiid time, then he woke up and said: 'May Allah have mercy on 'Amr.' We said: 'Which 'Amr, 0 Messenger of Allah?' He said: "Amr ibn al-'As.' We said: 'What about him?' He said: 'I remembered him because every time I asked people to give in charity, he would bring his charity and be very generous. I would ask hLm: "Where did you get this from, 0 'Amr?', and he would say: "From Allah." 'Amr spoke the truth; 'Amr has a great deal of good with Allah."' Zuhayr said: "When the fitnah broke out, I said, 'I will follow this man, of whom the Messenger of Allah said what he said, and I never left him."'735 The Battles of the Camel and Siffeen, and the issue of arbitration 3.2.4. His deeds at the time of Abu Bakr, 'Umar and 'Uthm2n (may Allah be pleased with them) The Messenger of Allah (g) sent 'Amr to call the two sons of al-Jilindi, Jayfar and 'Abbzd, to Islam. He called them to Islam, and they believed in the Prophet (g); they allowed ' A m to collect zak2h and judge disputes between their people, and they supported him against those who opposed him.73h After the death of the Messenger of Allah (B), Abu Bakr sent 'Amr ibn al-'AS with an army to Palestine, after giving him the choice between staying in the post to which the Messenger of Allah (g) had appointed him or choosing something that would be better for him in this world and the hereafter. 'Amr ibn al-'As wrote to him, saying: "I am one of the arrows of Islam, and after Allah, you are the one to shoot it and collect (the arrows).

So choose the strongest, most pious and best of them and use it."737 When he came to Madinah, Abu Bah (&) told him to stay outside Madinah and camp until he had urged the people to join him, then he sent him with an army to ria.^^' During the Battle of Yarmook, 'Amr was in charge of the right flank, and his participation had a great impact on the Muslim victory. After the death of Abu Bakr (&), 'Amr remained in Syria and played an effective role in the Islamic conquest of Syria. Along with Shur&beel ibn Hasanah, he conquered Bees&, Tiberias and ~ j n a d e e n . ~ ~ ~ He also conquered Gaza, al-Ludd (Lad), Yubna, 'Amwh (Emmaus), Bayt Jibreen, Yafa (Jaffa), R a f a and Jerusalem. Not only did 'Amr (&) conquer Syria; he also conquered famous cities in Egypt. 'Umar ibn al-Kha@b (4) issued instructions to 'Amr ibn al-'As (&), after he had finished conquering Syria, to march to Egypt with the troops who were with him.

He set out until he reached al-'Areesh and conquered it, and he also conquered alFarma, al-Fus&, the Fortress of Babylon, 'Ayn Shams, al-Fayyoom, al-Ashmooneen, Akhmeem, al-Bashrood, Tanees, Dimyit 'Ali ibn Abi Tilib (Damietta), Toona, Daqhalah, Alexandria and other North African cities such as Barqah, Zuwaylah, and ~ r i ~ o l i . ~ ~ ' 'Umar (4) testified to his leadership qualities by saying: "Abu Abdullah should not walk on the earth except as a leader."741 At the time of 'Uthmk (&), he was one of those who was close to the caliph and one of his~consnltants. When 'Uthmin (4) was besieged, 'Amr ibn al-'As left Madinah and headed for Syria, saying: "0 people of Madinah, anyone who stays there while this man is killed will be humiliated by Allah. Whoever cannot support him, let him flee." He left, and his two sons Abdullah and Muhammad left with him, after which Hassk ibn Thgbit and many others followed snity4' When news came of the murder of 'Uthmin and the people's swearing allegiance to 'Ali ibn Abi Tilib, 'Amr ibn al-'AS said: "May Allah have mercy on 'Uthmiu (&) and forgive him." Salhah ibn Zanbi' al-Judhbi said: "0 Arabs, there was between yon and the fitnah a door, so fmd another door when that door is broken." 'Amr said: 'That is what we want, but nothing can fix the door except a drill, a drill that can ensure justice between the people." He left on foot, weeping and saying: "0 ' U W , I weep for the death of modesty and religious commitment." Then he went to ~ a m a s c u s . ~ ~ ~ This is a true picture of 'Amr (&), which is in harmony with his character, his biography and his closeness to 'Uthmik. As for the distorted image that shows him as a man of personal interests and ambitions who ran after worldly gains, this is based on the weak and rejected report of al-Wiqidi from Moosa ibn ~ a ' ~ o o b . 7 ~ ~ A number of writers and historians were influenced by these weak reports, so they depicted 'Amr in the worst possible manner, as in the descriptions given by M&moud Sheet Khag2b745 and 'Abdul-Kh2iq Sayyid Abu ~ i b i ~ a h . 7 ~ ~ 'Abbas M b o u d al- 'Aqqid stubbornly refused to examine the chains of narration; he The Battles of the Camel and Siffeen, and the issue of arbitration insulted the intelligence of his readers by presenting an image of Mu'iwiyah and 'Amr as opportunists who were pursuing personal interests. All historical critics agree that the reports to which he refers in his analysis are false, but that does not mean anything to al- 'Aqqid.

After narrating weak and strange reports, on which no argument can be based, he said: "Let the historical critics say what they want about whether this conversation took place and whether these words a e sound. Regardless of whatever is proven to be sound or otherwise with regard to the chain of narration or the text, what there can be no doubt about, even if all history books got together to prove the opposite, is that the deal between the two men was a deal to share authority and power, and the deal between them was based on the share of authority that each of them would have. Were it not for that, there would have been no deal."747 The true character of ' A m ibn al-'As is that of a man of principle. He left Madinah when he found himself unable to defend 'UthmSm (&), for whom he wept bitter teas when he was killed. He was part of the consultative committee at the time of 'Uthmh (&), even though he was not a governor.

He went to join Mu'iwiyah (&,) and cooperated with him to fight the killers of 'Uthmin (&) and seek justice for the martyred The murder of 'Uthmb (&) was sufficient to make him very angry with all those criminals who shed blood. He thought it essential to choose a place other than Madinah as a base for seeking vengeance against those who had the audacity to transgress against the sanctuary of the Messenger of Allah (g) and slay the caliph before the people's eyes. What is strange about ' A m getting angry for the sake of 'UthmSm (&)? If anyone doubts this matter, then his doubt is based on fabricated reports, which depict 'Amr as a man whose main concern was authority and power.749 'Ali ibn Abi Tilib 3.3. The text of the arbitration document In the name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful